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Important emergency numbers for Mumbai

A M B U L A N C E S E R V I C E S
ARYA SAMAJ 6482800/6462075 JOGESHWARI 8372859
ANDHERI 6243675/6253599 KALBADEVI 2095611
BOMBAY CITY CORP 2014295 KHAR(W) 6485676
BYCULLA 3076113 LTMG HOSPITAL 4076381-89
CHEMBUR 5569990 LTMG EMERGENCY Extn 569
CHOWPATTY 3610836 LTMG ICCU Extn 569
DADAR 4229531 MAHIM 4305847
DOMBIVLI 911-480445/481073 MULUND(E) 5645385
GHATKOPAR 5153260 MULUND(W) 5675995
GOREGAON 8721061 MUNICIPAL AMBULANCE 3077324
GOLDEN HOUR PROJECTS 4222040/4308888 MUSLIM AMBULANCE 3757645
SANTACRUZ 6482800 SION 4076381
SADHUBELLA 4923491/4925788 SAIFEE AMBULANCE 3466520
THANE 5331552 VILE PARLE(W) 6207254
PARSI AMBULANCE 2621666
H O S P I T A L S
1) Bhagwati Hospital 893 2461/2/3 2) Bombay Hospital 206 7676
3) B.Y.L. Nair Hospital 308 1490 4) Cama & Albless Hospital 261 1871
5) Convest Jain Clinic 382 9308/382 9309 6) Ear,Nose and Throat Hospital 204 2526
7) ESIS Hospital – Andheri 836 7203/836 7207 8) ESIS Hospital - Kandivli 887 4529
9) ESIS Hospital – Mulund 564 5520 to 564 5524 10) ESIS Hospital – Thane 582 1260
582 3434/582 1316
11) ESIS Hospital – Worli 493 2428/3142/2390/3143 12) G.T. Hospital 262 1468/1464/1467
13) Harkisandas Hospital 382 2701,385 5555 14) Hinduja Hospital 445 1515,445 2222
15) J.J. Hospital 373 5555,373 9400 16) Jaslok Hospital 493 3333,496 3333
17) K.E.M. Hospital 413 6051,413 1763 18) L T Hospital 407 3955
19) Kasturba Hospital 308 3901 20) Leelavati Hospital 643 8281/2
21) Lokmanya Tilak Hospital (Sion) 407 6381,407 6389, 409 2020. 22) Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Hospital 413 2575
23) Mumbai Port Trust Hospital 412 9684/412 7947 24) Nair Hospital 308 1490
25) Nanavati Hospital 618 2255 26) N M Wadia Hospital 412 9786 412 9787
27) Parsi General Hospital 363 3641 28) P D Hinduja National Hospital 445 1515 445 2222
29) Podar Hospital 493 3533,493 5533 30) Rajawadi Hospital 511 5066/70
31) S.K.Patil Hospital (Piramal) 882 4115 32) S L Raheja Hospital 446 7570
33) St. George's Hospital 262 0344,262 0242, 262 1420 34) Tata Memorial Hospital 412 7096,414 6750
B L O O D B A N K, E Y E B A N K, E Y E H O S P I T A L
1) Arpan Blood Bank 511 1313 2) Bhagwati Blood Bank 893 2461/2/3
3) Bhatia General Hospital 307 1292,307 1297 4) Blood Transfusion Service 266 3560
5) Bombay Hospital 206 7337,206 7309/7676 6) B Y L Nair Hospital 309 8150
7) Cooper Hospital 620 7254 8) Dr.Patkar Blood Bank 768 5805
9) ESIS Hospital 493 3142,494 4150 ,93 2390 10) G T Hospital 262 1464
11) Haffkins Institute 412 9320 12) Harkisondas Hospital 388 9301,382 2701
13) Hinduja Hospital 445 2222/1515 14) Holi Spirit 837 8822
15) Jaslok Hospital 496 3333 16) J J Hospital 373 9400
17) KEM Blood Bank 413 5189 18) Lokmanya Tilak Hospital 407 2737
19) Mumbai Port Trust 414 5100 20) Parsi Hospital 363 3641
21) Red Cross Society 266 3195,266 3560 22) St. George Hospital 262 0242,262 0344
23) Sion Hospital 407 6380,407 6381 24) Tata Hospital 414 6750,414 6752
25) Wadia Maternity Hospital 412 9786
EYE BANKS 1919
1) Arpan Eye Bank 514 7293 2) Eye Bank Co-ord & Reasearch Centre 374 1343
3) Gokhale Eye Bank 422 1820 4) J.J. Hospital 375 0102
5) K.V.O Samaj Eye Bank 560 2133 6) Lakshmi Eye Bank 745 2228
7) Lions Club of Kopri Eye Bank 533 3455 8) Lions Juhu Eye Bank 912-322387
9) Lokmanya Tilak Hospital 407 0102/409 3077 10) P.D. Hinduja Hospital Eye Bank 445 1515
11) Sir Hathibhai Kakalchand Eye Bank 385 5555 12) Sir Jamshedji Duggan Eye Bank 375 0102
EYE HOSPITALS
1) BMC Eye Hospital 308 2632 2) Harkisondas Hospital 382 2701
A I R L I N E S E N Q U I R I E S & F L I G H T I N F O R M A T I O N ¦
AIR INDIA 2024142/2876464
Reservation (International) 287 6464 Reservation (Domestic) 287 6464
Reconfirmation/Cancellation 287 6464 Travel Agents 287 6464
Flight Arrival 144 Flight Departure 145
INDIAN AIRLINES : 615 6850 Enquiry 140
Reservation 141 Arrival Information 142
Departure Information 143/615 6161
A I R L I N E S E N Q U I R I E S & F L I G H T I N F O R M A T I O N
AERO FLOAT AIRLINES 2821682 KLM DUTCH AIRLINES 838838
AIR FRANCE 2024818 KOREA AIRWAYS 2004809
AIR LANKA 2823288 KUWAIT AIR LINES 2045351
AIRPORT AUTHORITY 6156466 LUFTHANSA AIR LINES 2023430
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ALITALIA 2045018 MAURITIUS AIR LINES 2028474
BANGLADESH AIRWAYS 8362957 OMAN AIRWAYS
8203095
BRITISH AIRWAYS 8329064 PAKISTAN AIRWAYS 8300328
CATHAY PACIFIC 2029112 PAN AMERICAN WORLD AIRWAYS 8219357
DELTA 2885659 QUANTAS AIRLINES 2044009
DHL COURIER AIRLINES 2623549 ROYAL NEPAL AIRLINES 2835489
EGYPT AIRLINES 2833798 SAHARA 6156363
EMIRATE AIRWAYS 8301111 SAUDIA AIRWAYS 2020199
GULF AIRWAYS 2021626 SOUTH AFRICA AIR 2823451
IRAQ AIRWAYS 2020597 SWISS AIR 2870122
JAPAN AIRLINES 2833215 SYRIAN ARAB AIRLINES 2826043
JET AIRWAYS 287509 1TWA AIRLINES 2616906
KENYA AIRWAYS 2820064 VAYUDOOT 2048585
R A I L W A Y S I N F O R M A T I O N
CENTRAL RAILWAY WESTERN RAILWAY
a) Enquiry 134 & 138 a) Enquiry 131
b) Reservation 135 b) Reservation 135
c) Train Arrival Status (South, East Zone) 136 c) Train Arrival Status (Delhi Side) 132
d) Train Arrival Status (North, East Zone) 137 d) Train Arrival Status(Ahmedabad/Baroda/Surat) 133
ARRIVAL/DEPARTURE ENQUIRY (IVRS) 2656565 RESERVATION STATUS ENQUIRY (IVRS)
For Central and Western Railway 2695959
R O A D W A Y S E N Q U I R I E S
BEST
a) Transport 4143611 b) Accident Information 4146162
MAHARASHTRA STATE ROAD TRANSPORT CORPORATION
a) Mumbai Central Bus Station 3071524 g) Borivali Stand 8058226
b) Parel Bus Station 4229905 h) Panvel Stand – 7452301
c) Kurla ¦ Bus Station Nehru Nagar 5222072 i) Panvel Stand – 7451397
d) Dadar Asiad Mumbai to Pune 4136835 j) Vashi Stand 7662833
e) Senapati Bapat Marg Mumbai Shirdi 4302667 ¦k) Sion Stand 4074157
f) Uran Stand 7222466
T O U R I S M E N Q U I R I E S
Tourism Enquiries 1913
a) Govt. Of India 2032932/2033144 b) I T D C 2023343
c) Govt. Of Maharashtra 2026713/2027762 d) M T D C 2024627
TELECOM SERVICES
1) Local Telephones Service Directory Enquiry 197
In case of difficulty in availing this service for further assistance please contact Supervisor 4374968
Asst. Traffic Supdt(Prabhadevi) 4225885,4225765 Traffic Superintendent 4226391,4379955
MTNL Radio Paging Service 4361414,4360067
2) Local Assistance 199** In case of difficulty in calling
Please contact particular Number 4370920 , 4377950
3) Morning Alarm/Wake Up/Reminder Call Service 116# (Pl. refer Phone Plus Facilities for more information) 550#
4) Time-English/Hindi/Marath 174* 5) Hindi Information Service 177
6) Automatic Changed Number Announcement System 1951 Hindi
Automatic Changed Number Announcement System 1952 English
Automatic Changed Number Announcement System 1953 Marath
In case of continuous difficulty in accessing above numbers, please contact JTO Complaint 4300681
7) AUTO COM(forms by FAX) 1661 8) Phonogram 185/262 4144
9) Internet Help Line(Prabhadevi) 4331175,4331408 10) Emergency Attention(Prabhadevi) 4307080/4308070
11 Billing Complaints 1662
* Calls to these numbers are metered
** Call put through are metered
# Metered equal to two calls
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY SERVICES
BEST
Colaba Fuse Centre 2184242 Dadar Fuse Centre 4124242/4124993
Fault Control(North) 4146683/4146987 Fault Control(South) 2066661/2066611
Khetwadi Fuse Centre 3854242/3852011 Worli Fuse Centre 4954242/4953363 Mahim
Fuse Centre 4444242 Pathakwadi Fuse Centre 2084242/2084243
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY SERVICE
BSES: 1912
Ambivali,Versova,Jogeshwari(E) 6361313/8221692 Andheri (E) &(W),Jogeshwari(W) 6249603/8300711
Bandra (E) & (W),Khar (E)& (W) 6423494/6424482 Borivli (E) & (W)
Mankhurd,Turbhe,Chembur 5563385 Chunabhatti,Nehru Ngr Kurla(E) 5221248/524258
Dahisar(West) 8981392 Dahisar(E)Mira Road Bhayander 8957038
Goregaon(East) and (Wast) 8721312/8722734 Kalina,Santacruz(E) & (W) 6182899
Kandivali(W)/Charkop,Malwani 8072227/8683242 Kurla(W),Vidyavihar 5143759/5141175
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Madh/kandivli(E) 8861675 Malad (East) & (West) 8402411/8080961
MIDC,SEEPZ,Marol,,Saki Vihar Road,upto L&T 8329781 Virkoli(E),Kannamwar Nagar
5786947
Vikroli (W),Ghatkoper (E) & (W) 5152558/5150770 Vileparle(E)&(W) Juhu Scheme 6208904
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY SERVICES
MSEB:
Bandra 6422211/6422131 Ballard Estate
2610061/2610062
Bhandup (East) & (West) 5610614/5600574 Churchgate
2820220/2820315
Dadar 4137562 Fort Market 2692544
Fountain 2619100/2674047/ 2674147 Kisan Nagar Sec.Office 5320453
Kolshet (Urban) Sub Div. Mulund (East) & (West)5686666/5644935 Owale Section Office
5349115
Patil Pure Thane 5341988 Thane 5333411/5367548
Dhakali Sec.Office 5331256
VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS
01) Alcoholics Anonymous 3075134 02)Anti Dowry 2620111
03) Indian Red Cross Society 2663560/2663195 (Blood Bank,Transfusion Services)
04) Institute for Psychological Health 5433270 05) Kripa Rehabilitation Center 6405411
06) Maitra Help Line 5385447 07) NAB 4935365/4936930
08) NASEOH 5220224/5220225 09) Priyadarshani Academy 2873456
(Anti Drugs Campaign & Educational Assistance)
10) St.George Hospital 2620242 (Regional Blood Transfusion)
11) VOICE (Voluntary Organisation in Community Enterprise) 6704304
MISCELLANEOUS SERVICES
A I R C O O L T A X I 8227006
MUNICIPAL SERVICES
a) General Complaints 3736622 b) Water Supply Complaints 3776294
COOKING GAS SERVICES
a) Bharat Petroleum 5582027,2619036 b) Hindustan Petroleum 2026151
c) LPG Leakages Complaints 3719636
POSTAL SERVICES
Postal Enquires 2620956 (7.30 am to 8.30 pm)
HINDI INFORMATION SERVICES
a) Hindi Information Service 4228331 b) Special Service 177/4228332/4225885

Health - Important Tips

Answer the phone by LEFTear.
Do not drink coffee TWICE a day.
Do not take pills with COOL water.
Do not have HUGE meals after 5pm.
Reduce the amount of OILY food you consume.
Drink more WATERin the morning, less at night.
Keep your distance from hand phone CHARGERS.
Do not use headphones/earphone for LONG period of time.
Best sleeping time is from 10pm at night to 6am in the morning.
Do not lie down immediately after taking medicine before sleeping.
When battery is down to the LAST grid/bar, do not answer the phone as the radiation is 1000 times.

Hindu Rituals and Routines

Why do we follow them?
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
Contents
Introduction
Introduction
3
Why do we…….
1.
Why do we light a lamp?
4
2.
Why do we have a prayer room?
4
3.
Why do we do Namaste?
5
4.
Why do we prostrate before parents and elders?
5
5.
Why do we wear marks (tilak, pottu and the like) on the forehead?
6
6.
- 2 - Why do we not touch papers, books and people with the feet?
7
7.
To touch another with the feet is considered an act of misdemeanor. Why is this so?
7
8.
Why do we apply the holy ash?
7
9.
Why do offer food to the Lord before eating it?
8
10.
Why do we fast?
9
11.
Why do we do pradakshina (circumambulate)?
9
12.
Why is pradakshina done only in a clockwise manner?
9
13.
Why do we regard trees and plants as sacred?
10
14.
Why do we ring the bell in a temple?
10
15.
Why do we worship the kalasha?
11
16.
Why do we consider the lotus as special?
11
17.
Why do we worship tulasi?
12
18.
Why do we blow the conch?
13
19.
Why do we say shaanti thrice?
13
20.
Why do we offer a coconut?
14
21.
Why do we chant Om?
15
22.
Why do we do aarati?
15
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 3 -
Introduction
Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life. Unlike other religions, Hindu dharma has many specialties. This is not known as a religion, it is known as the dharma; Sanaathana Dharma. Sanaathana means, according to Bhagavath Geetha, which cannot be destroyed by fire, weapons, water, air, and which is present in all living and non living being. Dharma means, the way of life which is the ‘total of all aachaaraas or customs and rituals’.
Sanaathana Dharma has its foundation on scientific spirituality. In the entire ancient Hindu literature we can see that science and spirituality are integrated. It is mentioned in the 40th chapter of the Yajurveda known as Eesaavaasya Upanishad that use scientific knowledge for solving problems in our life and use the spiritual knowledge for attaining immortality through philosophical outlook.
Remember that in each and every aachaaraa there will be a component of spirituality in it. Without spirituality, nothing exists in Sanaathana dharma. Generally everyone bear a wrong impression that this spirituality is religion. Spirituality is different in Hindu dharma. Here the question of religion does not exist at all, because Hindu dharma was not created by an individual, prophet or an incarnation. Spirituality is a part of every Hindu custom in the normal life of a Hindu.
Aachaaraas are to be followed based on their merits available from the self experience; you need not blindly follow a teacher or someone who gives advice without reasoning. All these aachaaraas are mentioned for the prosperity of the human beings and it should be the prime focus for practicing the Hindu aachaaraas.
Achaaryaath paadam aadatthe
paadam sishya swamedhayaa
paadam sa brahmachaaribhya
sesham kaala kramena cha
This is an important advice given in smruthies. It means a person can get only one quarter of knowledge from Achaarya - the teacher, another quarter by analyzing self, one quarter by discussing with others and the last quarter during the process of living by method addition, deletion, correction, and modification of already known aachaaraas or new aachaaraas.
Aachaaraath labhathe hi ayu:
aachaaraath dhanamakshayam
aachaaraath labhathe suprajaa:
aachaaro ahanthya lakshanam
Aachaaraas are followed for the psychological and physiological health and long life; Aachaaraas are followed for prosperity and wealth; Aachaaraas are followed for strong family and social bondage and following the Aachaaraas give a fine personality, dharmic outlook and vision, says our dharmasaastra.
In India everyone followed Aachaaraas for the above mentioned psychological, physiological, family relation, social benefits and national integration based benefits. It is your right and duty to understand scientifically, rationally and logically the meaning of each and every Aachaaraas and follow the same in your life systematically.
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 4 -

1. Why do we light a lamp?
In almost every Indian home a lamp is lit daily before the altar of the Lord. In some houses it is lit at dawn, in some, twice a day – at dawn and dusk – and in a few it is maintained continuously - Akhanda Deepa. All auspicious functions commence with the lighting of the lamp, which is often maintained right through the occasion.
Light symbolizes knowledge, and darkness - ignorance. The Lord is the "Knowledge Principle" (Chaitanya) who is the source, the enlivener and the illuminator of all knowledge. Hence light is worshiped as the Lord himself.
Knowledge removes ignorance just as light removes darkness. Also knowledge is a lasting inner wealth by which all outer achievement can be accomplished. Hence we light the lamp to bow down to knowledge as the greatest of all forms of wealth.
Why not light a bulb or tube light? That too would remove darkness. But the traditional oil lamp has a further spiritual significance. The oil or ghee in the lamp symbolizes our vaasanas or negative tendencies and the wick, the ego. When lit by spiritual knowledge, the vaasanas get slowly exhausted and the ego too finally perishes. The flame of a lamp always burns upwards. Similarly we should acquire such knowledge as to take us towards higher ideals.
Whilst lighting the lamp we thus pray:
Deepajyothi parabrahma
Deepa sarva tamopahaha
Deepena saadhyate saram
Sandhyaa deepo namostute
I prostrate to the dawn/dusk lamp; whose light is the Knowledge Principle (the Supreme Lord), which removes the darkness of ignorance and by which all can be achieved in life.

2. Why do we have a prayer room?
Most Indian homes have a prayer room or altar. A lamp is lit and the Lord worshipped each day. Other spiritual practices like japa - repetition of the Lord’s name, meditation, paaraayana - reading of the scriptures, prayers, and devotional singing etc are also done here. Special worship is done on auspicious occasions like birthdays, anniversaries, festivals and the like. Each member of the family - young or old - communes with and worships the Divine here.
The Lord is the entire creation. He is therefore the true owner of the house we live in too. The prayer room is the Master room of the house. We are the earthly occupants of His property. This notion rids us of false pride and possessiveness.
The ideal attitude to take is to regard the Lord as the true owner of our homes and us as caretakers of His home. But if that is rather difficult, we could at least think of Him as a very welcome guest. Just as we would house an important guest in the best comfort, so too we felicitate the Lord’s presence in our homes by having a prayer room or altar, which is, at all times, kept clean and well-decorated.
Also the Lord is all pervading. To remind us that He resides in our homes with us, we have prayer rooms. Without the grace of the Lord, no task can be successfully or easily accomplished. We invoke His grace by communing with Him in the prayer room each day and on special occasions.
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 5 -
Each room in a house is dedicated to a specific function like the bedroom for resting, the drawing room to receive guests, the kitchen for cooking etc. The furniture, decor and the atmosphere of each room are made conducive to the purpose it serves. So too for the purpose of meditation, worship and prayer, we should have a conducive atmosphere - hence the need for a prayer room.
Sacred thoughts and sound vibrations pervade the place and influence the minds of those who spend time there. Spiritual thoughts and vibrations accumulated through regular meditation, worship and chanting done there pervade the prayer room. Even when we are tired or agitated, by just sitting in the prayer room for a while, we feel calm, rejuvenated and spiritually uplifted.

3. Why do we do Namaste?
Indians greet each other with namaste. The two palms are placed together in front of the chest and the head bows whilst saying the word namaste. This greeting is for all - people younger than us, of our own age, those older than friends, even strangers and us.
There are five forms of formal traditional greeting enjoined in the shaastras of which namaskaram is one. This is understood as prostration but it actually refers to paying homage as we do today when we greet each other with a namaste.
Namaste could be just a casual or formal greeting, a cultural convention or an act of worship. However there is much more to it than meets the eye. In Sanskrit namah + te = namaste. It means - I bow to you - my greetings, salutations or prostration to you. Namaha can also be literally interpreted as "na ma" (not mine). It has a spiritual significance of negating or reducing one’s ego in the presence of another.
The real meeting between people is the meeting of their minds. When we greet another, we do so with namaste, which means, "may our minds meet," indicated by the folded palms placed before the chest. The bowing down of the head is a gracious form of extending friendship in love and humility
The spiritual meaning is even deeper. The life force, the divinity, the Self or the Lord in me is the same in all. Recognizing this oneness with the meeting of the palms, we salute with head bowed the Divinity in the person we meet. That is why sometimes, we close our eyes as we do namaste to a revered person or the Lord – as if to look within. The gesture is often accompanied by words like "Ram Ram," "Jai Shri Krishna", "Namo Narayana", "Jai Siya Ram", "Om Shanti" etc - indicating the recognition of this divinity.
When we know this significance, our greeting does not remain just a superficial gesture or word but paves the way for a deeper communion with another in an atmosphere of love and respect.

4. Why do we prostrate before parents and elders?
Indians prostrate before their parents, elders, teachers and noble souls by touching their feet. The elder in turn blesses us by placing his or her hand on or over our heads. Prostration is done daily, when we meet elders and particularly on important occasions like the beginning of a new task, birthdays, festivals etc. In certain traditional circles, prostration is accompanied by abhivaadana, which serves to introduce one-self, announce one’s family and social stature.
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 6 -
Man stands on his feet. Touching the feet in prostration is a sign of respect for the age, maturity, nobility and divinity that our elders personify. It symbolizes our recognition of their selfless love for us and the sacrifices they have done for our welfare. It is a way of humbly acknowledging the greatness of another. This tradition reflects the strong family ties, which has been one of India’s enduring strengths.
The good wishes (Sankalpa) and blessings (aashirvaada) of elders are highly valued in India. We prostrate to seek them. Good thoughts create positive vibrations. Good wishes springing from a heart full of love, divinity and nobility have a tremendous strength. When we prostrate with humility and respect, we invoke the good wishes and blessings of elders, which flow in the form of positive energy to envelop us. This is why the posture assumed whether it is in the standing or prone position, enables the entire body to receive the energy thus received.
The different forms of showing respect are :
Pratuthana:
Rising to welcome a person.
Namaskaara:
Paying homage in the form of namaste
Upasangrahan:
Touching the feet of elders or teachers.
Shaashtaanga:
Prostrating fully with the feet, knees, stomach, chest, forehead and arms touching the ground in front of the elder.
Pratyabivaadana:
Returning a greeting.
Rules are prescribed in our scriptures as to who should prostrate to whom. Wealth, family name, age, moral strength and spiritual knowledge in ascending order of importance qualified men to receive respect. This is why a king though the ruler of the land, would prostrate before a spiritual master. Epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata have many stories highlighting this aspect.

5. Why do we wear marks (tilak, pottu and the like) on the forehead?
The tilak or pottu invokes a feeling of sanctity in the wearer and others. It is recognized as a religious mark. Its form and colour vary according to one’s caste, religious sect or the form of the Lord worshipped.
In earlier times, the four castes (based on varna or colour) - Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra - applied marks differently. The brahmin applied a white chandan mark signifying purity, as his profession was of a priestly or academic nature. The kshatriya applied a red kumkum mark signifying valour as he belonged to warrior races. The vaishya wore a yellow kesar or turmeric mark signifying prosperity as he was a businessman or trader devoted to creation of wealth. The sudra applied a black bhasma, kasturi or charcoal mark signifying service as he supported the work of the other three divisions.
Also Vishnu worshippers apply a chandan tilak of the shape of "U," Shiva worshippers a tripundra of bhasma, Devi worshippers a red dot of kumkum and so on).
The tilak cover the spot between the eyebrows, which is the seat of memory and thinking. It is known as the Aajna Chakra in the language of Yoga. The tilak is applied with the prayer - "May I remember the Lord. May this pious feeling pervade all my activities. May I be righteous in my deeds." Even when we temporarily forget this prayerful attitude the mark on another reminds us of our resolve. The tilak is thus a blessing of the Lord and a protection against wrong tendencies and forces.
The entire body emanates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves - the forehead and the subtle spot between the eyebrows especially so. That is why worry generates heat and
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 7 -
causes a headache. The tilak and pottu cools the forehead, protects us and prevents energy loss. Sometimes the entire forehead is covered with chandan or bhasma. Using plastic reusable "stick bindis" is not very beneficial, even though it serves the purpose of decoration.

6. Why do we not touch papers, books and people with the feet?
To Indians, knowledge is sacred and divine. So it must be given respect at all times. Nowadays we separate subjects as sacred and secular. But in ancient India every subject - academic or spiritual - was considered divine and taught by the guru in the gurukula.
The custom of not stepping on educational tools is a frequent reminder of the high position accorded to knowledge in Indian culture. From an early age, this wisdom fosters in us a deep reverence for books and education. This is also the reason why we worship books, vehicles and instruments once a year on Saraswathi Pooja or Ayudha Pooja day, dedicated to the Goddess of Learning. In fact, each day before starting our studies, we pray:
Saraswati namasthubhyam Varade kaama roopini Vidyaarambham karishyaami Sidhirbhavatu me sadaa
O Goddess Saraswati, the giver of Boons and fulfiller of wishes, I prostrate to You before starting my studies. May you always fulfill me?

7. To touch another with the feet is considered an act of misdemeanor. Why is this so?
Man is regarded as the most beautiful, living breathing temple of the Lord! Therefore touching another with the feet is akin to disrespecting the divinity within him or her. This calls for an immediate apology, which is offered with reverence and humility.

8. Why do we apply the holy ash?
The ash of any burnt object is not regarded as holy ash. Bhasma (the holy ash) is the ash from the homa (sacrificial fire) where special wood along with ghee and other herbs is offered as worship of the Lord. Or the deity is worshipped by pouring ash as abhisheka and is then distributed as bhasma.
Bhasma is generally applied on the forehead. Some apply it on certain parts of the body like the upper arms, chest etc. Some ascetics rub it all over the body. Many consume a pinch of it each time they receive it.
The word bhasma means, "that by which our sins are destroyed and the Lord is remembered." Bha implied bhartsanam ("to destroy") and sma implies smaranam ("to remember"). The application of bhasma therefore signifies destruction of the evil and remembrance of the divine. Bhasma is called vibhuti (which means "glory") as it gives glory to one who applies it and raksha (which means a source of protection) as it protects the wearer from ill health and evil, by purifying him or her.
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
- 8 -
Homa (offering of oblations into the fire with sacred chants) signifies the offering or surrender of the ego and egocentric desires into the flame of knowledge or a noble and selfless cause. The consequent ash signifies the purity of the mind, which results from such actions.
Also the fire of knowledge burns the oblation and wood signifying ignorance and inertia respectively. The ash we apply indicates that we should burn false identification with the body and become free of the limitations of birth and death. This is not to be misconstrued as a morose reminder of death but as a powerful pointer towards the fact that time and tide wait for none.
Bhasma is specially associated with Lord Shiva who applies it all over His body. Shiva devotes apply bhasma as a tripundra. When applied with a red spot at the center, the mark symbolizes Shiva-Shakti (the unity of energy and matter that creates the entire seen and unseen universe).
Tryambakam yajaamahe Sugandhim pushtivardhanam Urvaa rukamiva bhandhanaan Mrytyor muksheeyamaa amrutaat
"We worship the three-eyed Lord Shiva who nourishes and spread fragrance in our lives. May He free us from the shackles of sorrow, change and death – effortlessly, like the fall of a rip brinjal from its stem."

9. Why do offer food to the Lord before eating it?
Indians make an offering of food to the Lord and later partake of it as prasaada - a holy gift from the Lord. In our daily ritualistic worship (pooja) too we offer naivedyam (food) to the Lord.
The Lord is omnipotent and omniscient. Man is a part, while the Lord is the totality. All that we do is by His strength and knowledge alone. Hence what we receive in life as a result of our actions is really His alone. We acknowledge this through the act of offering food to Him. This is exemplified by the Hindi words "tera tujko arpan"– I offer what is Yours to You. Thereafter it is akin to His gift to us, graced by His divine touch.
Knowing this, our entire attitude to food and the act of eating changes. The food offered will naturally be pure and the best. We share what we get with others before consuming it. We do not demand, complain or criticise the quality of the food we get. We eat it with cheerful acceptance (prasaada buddhi).
Before we partake of our daily meals we first sprinkle water around the plate as an act of purification. Five morsels of food are placed on the side of the plate acknowledging the debt owed by us to the Divine forces (devta runa) for their benign grace and protection, our ancestors (pitru runa) for giving us their lineage and a family culture, the sages (rishi runa) as our religion and culture have been "realised", aintained and handed down to us by them, our fellow beings (manushya runa) who constitute society without the support of which we could not live as we do and other living beings (bhuta runa) for serving us selflessly.
Thereafter the Lord, the life force, who is also within us as the five life-giving physiological functions, is offered the food. This is done with the chant
praanaaya swaahaa, apaanaaya swaahaa, vyaanaaya swaahaa,
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
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udaanaaya swaahaa, samaanaaya swaahaa, brahmane swaahaa
After offering the food thus, it is eaten as prasaada - blessed food.

10. Why do we fast?
Most devout Indians fast regularly or on special occasions like festivals. On such days they do not eat at all, eat once or make do with fruits or a special diet of simple food.
Fasting in Sanskrit is called upavaasa. Upa means "near" + vaasa means "to stay". Upavaasa therefore means staying near (the Lord), meaning the attainment of close mental proximity with the Lord. Then what has upavaasa to do with food?
A lot of our time and energy is spent in procuring food items, preparing, cooking, eating and digesting food. Certain food types make our minds dull and agitated. Hence on certain days man decides to save time and conserve his energy by eating either simple, light food or totally abstaining from eating so that his mind becomes alert and pure. The mind, otherwise pre-occupied by the thought of food, now entertains noble thoughts and stays with the Lord. Since it is a self-imposed form of discipline it is usually adhered to with joy
Also every system needs a break and an overhaul to work at its best. Rest and a change of diet during fasting is very good for the digestive system and the entire body.
The more you indulge the senses, the more they make their demands. Fasting helps us to cultivate control over our senses, sublimate our desires and guide our minds to be poised and at peace.
Fasting should not make us weak, irritable or create an urge to indulge later. This happens when there is no noble goal behind fasting.
The Bhagavad-Gita urges us to eat appropriately - neither too less nor too much - yukta-aahaara and to eat simple, pure and healthy food (a saatvik diet) even when not fasting.

11. Why do we do pradakshina (circumambulate)?
We cannot draw a circle without a center point. The Lord is the center, source and essence of our lives. Recognizing Him as the focal point in our lives, we go about doing our daily chores. This is the significance of pradakshina.
Also every point on the circumference of a circle is equidistant from the center. This means that wherever or whoever we may be, we are equally close to the Lord. His grace flows towards us without partiality.

12. Why is pradakshina done only in a clockwise manner?
The reason is not, as a person said, to avoid a traffic jam! As we do pradakshina, the Lord is always on our right. In India the right side symbolizes auspiciousness. So as we circumambulate the sanctum sanctorum we remind ourselves to lead an auspicious life of righteousness, with the Lord who is the indispensable source of help and strength, as our guide - the "right hand".
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Indian scriptures enjoin - matrudevo bhava, pitrudevo bhava, acharyadevo bhava. May you consider your parents and teachers as you would the Lord. With this in mind we also do pradakshina around our parents and divine personages.
After the completion of traditional worship (pooja), we customarily do pradakshina around ourselves. In this way we recognize and remember the supreme divinity within us, which alone is idolized in the form of the Lord that we worship outside.

13. Why do we regard trees and plants as sacred?
The Lord, the life in us, pervades all living beings, be they plants or animals. Hence, they are all regarded as sacred. Human life on earth depends on plants and trees. They give us the vital factors that make life possible on earth: food, oxygen, clothing, shelter, medicines etc.
Hence, in India, we are taught to regard trees and plants as sacred. Indians scriptures tell us to plant ten trees if, for any reason, we have to cut one. We are advised to use parts of trees and plants only as much as is needed for food, fuel, shelter etc. we are also urged to apologies to a plant or tree before cutting it to avoid incurring a specific sin named soona.
Certain trees and plants like tulasi, peepal etc., which have tremendous beneficial qualities, are worshipped till today. It is believed that divine beings manifest as trees and plants, and many people worship them to fulfill their desires or to please the Lord.

14. Why do we ring the bell in a temple?
Is it to wake up the Lord? But the Lord never sleeps. Is it to let the Lord know we have come? He does not need to be told, as He is all knowing. Is it a form of seeking permission to enter His precinct? It is a homecoming and therefore entry needs no permission. The Lord welcomes us at all times. Then why do we ring the bell?
The ringing of the bell produces what is regarded as an auspicious sound. It produces the sound Om, the universal name of the Lord. There should be auspiciousness within and without, to gain the vision of the Lord who is all-auspiciousness.
Even while doing the ritualistic aarati, we ring the bell. It is sometimes accompanied by the auspicious sounds of the conch and other musical instruments. An added significance of ringing the bell, conch and other instruments is that they help drowned any inauspicious or irrelevant noises and comments that might disturb or distract the worshippers in their devotional ardour, concentration and inner peace.
As we start the daily ritualistic worship (pooja) we ring the bell, chanting:
Aagamaarthamtu devaanaam gamanaarthamtu rakshasaam Kurve ghantaaravam tatra devataahvaahna lakshanam
I ring this bell indicating the invocation of divinity, So that virtuous and noble forces enter (my home and heart); and the demonic and evil forces from within and without, depart.
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15. Why do we worship the kalasha?
First of all what is a kalasha? A brass, mud or copper pot is filled with water. Mango leaves are placed in the mouth of the pot and a coconut is placed over it. A red or white thread is tied around its neck or sometimes all around it in a intricate diamond-shaped pattern. The pot may be decorated wit designs. Such a pot is known as a kalasha.
When the pot is filled with water or rice, it is known as purnakumbha representing the inert body which when filled with the divine life force gains the power to do all the wonderful things that makes life what it is.
A kalasha is placed with due rituals on all-important occasions like the traditional house warming (grihapravesa), wedding, daily worship etc. It is placed near the entrance as a sign of welcome. It is also used in a traditional manner while receiving holy personages. Why do we worship the kalasha? Before the creation came into being, Lord Vishnu was reclining on His snake-bed in the milky ocean. From His navel emerged a lotus from which appeared Lord Brahma, the creator, who thereafter created this world.
The water in the kalasha symbolizes the primordial water from which the entire creation emerged. It is the giver of life to all and has the potential of creating innumerable names and forms, the inert objects and the sentient beings and all that is auspicious in the world from the energy behind the universe. The leaves and coconut represent creation.
The thread represents the love that "binds" all in creation. The kalasha is therefore considered auspicious and worshipped. The waters from all the holy rivers, the knowledge of all the Vedas and the blessings of all the deities are invoked in the kalasha and its water is thereafter used for all the rituals, including the abhisheka.
The consecration (kumbhaabhisheka) of a temple is done in a grand manner with elaborate rituals including the pouring of one or more kalashas of holy water on the top of the temple. When the asuras and devas churned the milky ocean, the Lord appeared bearing the pot of nectar, which blessed one with everlasting life.
Thus the kalasha also symbolizes immortality. Men of wisdom are full and complete as they identify with the infinite Truth (poornatvam). They brim with joy and love and respect all that is auspicious. We greet them with a purnakumbha ("full pot") acknowledging their greatness and as a sign of respectful and reverential welcome, with a "full heart".

16. Why do we consider the lotus as special?
The lotus is the symbol of truth, auspiciousness and beauty (satyam, shivam, sundaram). The Lord is also that nature and therefore, His various aspects are compared to a lotus (i.e. lotus-eyes, lotus feet, lotus hands, the lotus of the heart etc.).
The lotus blooms with the rising sun and close at night. Similarly, our minds open up and expand with the light of knowledge. The lotus grows even in slushy areas. It remains beautiful and untainted despite its surroundings, reminding us that we too can and should strive to remain pure and beautiful within, under all circumstances.
The lotus leaf never gets wet even though it is always in water. It symbolizes the man of wisdom (gyaani) who remains ever joyous, unaffected by the world of sorrow and change. This is revealed in a shloka from the Bhagwad-Geeta:
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Brahmanyaadhaaya karmaani Sangam tyaktvaa karoti yaha Lipyate na sa paapena Padma patram ivaambhasaa
He who does actions, offering them to Brahman (the Supreme), abandoning attachment, is not tainted by sin, just as a lotus leaf remains unaffected by the water on it.
From this, we learn that what is natural to the man of wisdom becomes a discipline to be practiced by all saadhakas or spiritual seekers and devotees. Our bodies have certain energy centers described in the Yoga Shaastras as chakras.
Each one is associated with lotus that has a certain number of petals. For example, a lotus with a thousand petals represents the Sahasra chakra at the top of the head, which opens when the yogi attains Godhood or Realisation. Also, the lotus posture (padmaasana) is recommended when one sits for meditation. A lotus emerged from the navel of Lord Vishnu. Lord Brahma originated from it to create the world. Hence, the lotus symbolizes the link between the creator and the supreme Cause.
It also symbolizes Brahmaloka, the abode of Lord Brahma. The auspicious sign of the swastika is said to have evolved from the lotus.

17. Why do we worship tulasi?
In Sanskrit, tulanaa naasti athaiva tulasi - that which is incomparable (in its qualities) is the tulasi
For Indians it is one of the most sacred plants. In fact it is known to be the only thing used in worship, which, once used, can be washed and reused in pooja - as it is regarded so self-purifying.
As one story goes, Tulasi was the devoted wife of Shankhachuda, a celestial being. She believed that Lord Krishna tricked her into sinning. So she cursed Him to become a stone (shaaligraama). Seeing her devotion and adhered to righteousness, the Lord blessed her saying that she would become the worshipped plant, tulasi that would adorn His head.
Also that all offerings would be incomplete without the tulasi leaf - hence the worship of tulasi.
She also symbolises Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Lord Vishnu. Those who wish to be righteous and have a happy family life worship the tulasi.
Tulasi is married to the Lord with all pomp and show as in any wedding.
This is because according to another legend, the Lord blessed her to be His consort. Satyabhama once weighed Lord Krishna against all her legendary wealth. The scales did not balance till a single tulasi leaf was placed along with the wealth on the scale by Rukmini with devotion.
Thus the tulasi played the vital role of demonstrating to the world that even a small object offered with devotion means more to the Lord than all the wealth in the world.
The tulasi leaf has great medicinal value and is used to cure various ailments, including the common cold.
Yanmule sarvatirhaani Yannagre sarvadevataa Yanmadhye sarvavedaascha Tulasi taam namaamyaham
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I bow down to the tulasi, At whose base are all the holy places, At whose top reside all the deities and In whose middle are all the Vedas.

18. Why do we blow the conch?
When the conch is blown, the primordial sound of Om emanates. Om is an auspicious sound that was chanted by the Lord before creating the world. It represents the world and the Truth behind it.
As the story goes, the demon Shankhaasura defeated devas, the Vedas and went to the bottom of the ocean. The devas appealed to Lord Vishnu for help. He incarnated as Matsya Avataara - the "fish incarnation" and killed Shankhaasura. The Lord blew the conch-shaped bone of his ear and head. The Om sound emanated, from which emerged the Vedas.
All knowledge enshrined in the Vedas is an elaboration of Om. The conch therefore is known as shankha after Shankaasua. The conch blown by the Lord is called Paanchajanya. He carries it at all times in one of His four hands.
It represents dharma or righteousness that is one of the four goals (purushaarthas) of life. The sound of the conch is thus also the victory call of good over evil.
Another well-known purpose of blowing the conch and the instruments, known traditionally to produce auspicious sounds is to drown or mask negative comments or noises that may disturb or upset the atmosphere or the minds of worshippers.
Ancient India lived in her villages. Each village was presided over by a primary temple and several small ones. During the aarati performed after all-important poojas and on sacred occasions, the conch used to be blown. Since villages were generally small, the sound of the conch would be heard all over the village. People who could not make it to the temple were reminded to stop whatever they were doing, at least for a few seconds, and mentally bow to the Lord. The conch sound served to briefly elevate people's minds to a prayerful attitude even in the middle of their busy daily routine.
The conch is placed at the altar in temples and homes next to the Lord as a symbol of Naada Brahma (Truth), the Vedas, Om, dharma, victory and auspiciousness. It is often used to offer devotees thirtha (sanctified water) to raise their minds to the highest Truth. It is worshipped with the following verse.
Twam puraa saagarot pannaha Vishnunaa vidhrutahakare Devaischa poojitha sarvahi Panchjanya namostu te
Salutations to Panchajanya the conch born of the ocean Held in the hand of Lord Vishnu and worshipped by all devaas

19. Why do we say shaanti thrice?
Shaanti, meaning "peace", is a natural state of being. Disturbances are created either by others or us. For example, peace already exists in a place until someone makes noise.
Therefore, peace underlies all our agitations. When agitations end, peace is naturally experienced since it was already there. Where there is peace, there is happiness. Therefore, every one without exception desires peace in his/her life.
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However, peace within or without seems very hard to attain because it is covered by our own agitations. A rare few manage to remain peaceful within even in the midst of external agitation and troubles. To invoke peace, we chant prayers. By chanting prayers, troubles end and peace is experienced internally, irrespective of the external disturbances. All such prayers end by chanting shaanti thrice.
It is believed that trivaram satyam - that which is said thrice comes true. For emphasizing a point we repeat a thing thrice. In the court of law also, one who takes the witness stands says, "I shall speak the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth".
We chant shaanti thrice to emphasise our intense desire for peace. All obstacles, problems and sorrows originate from three sources.
Aadhidaivika : The unseen divine forces over which we have little or no control like earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions etc.
Aadhibhautika: The known factors around us like accidents, human contacts, pollution, crime etc.
Aadhyaatmika : We sincerely pray to the Lord that at least while we undertake special tasks or even in our daily lives, there are no problems or that, problems are minimised from the three sources written about above.
May peace alone prevail. Hence shaanti is chanted thrice.
It is chanted aloud the first time, addressing the unseen forces. It is chanted softer the second time, directed to our immediate surroundings and those around, and softest the last time as it is addressed to oneself.

20. Why do we offer a coconut?
In India one of the most common offerings in a temple is a coconut. It is also offered on occasions like weddings, festivals, the use of a new vehicle, bridge, house etc. It is offered in the sacrificial fire whilst performing homa. The coconut is broken and placed before the Lord. It is later distributed as prasaada.
The fibre covering of the dried coconut is removed except for a tuft on the top. The marks on the coconut make it look like the head of a human being. The coconut is broken, symbolising the breaking of the ego. The juice within, representing the inner tendencies (vaasanas) is offered along with the white kernel - the mind, to the Lord.
A mind thus purified by the touch of the Lord is used as prasaada ( a holy gift). In the traditional abhishekha ritual done in all temples and many homes, several materials are poured over the deity like milk, curd, honey, tender coconut water, sandal paste, holy ash etc. Each material has a specific significance of bestowing certain benefits on worshippers. Tender coconut water is used in abhisheka rituals since it is believed to bestow spiritual growth on the seeker.
The coconut also symbolises selfless service. Every part of the tree -the trunk, leaves, fruit, coir etc. Is used in innumerable ways like thatches, mats, tasty dishes, oil, soap etc. It takes in even salty water from the earth and converts it into sweet nutritive water that is especially beneficial to sick people. It is used in the preparation of many ayurvedic medicines and in other alternative medicinal systems.
The marks on the coconut are even thought to represent the three-eyed Lord Shiva and therefore it is considered to be a means to fulfill our desires.
Hindu Rituals and Routines Why do we follow them?
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21. Why do we chant Om?
Om is one of the most chanted sound symbols in India. It has a profound effect on the body and mind of the one who chants and also on the surroundings. Most mantras and vedic prayers start with Om.
All auspicious actions begin with Om. It is even used as a greeting - Om, Hari Om etc. It is repeated as a mantra or meditated upon. Its form is worshipped, contemplated upon or used as an auspicious sign.
Om is the universal name of the Lord. It is made up of the letters A (phonetically as in "around"), U (phonetically as in "put") and M (phonetically as in "mum"). The sound emerging from the vocal chords starts from the base of the throat as "A". With the coming together of the lips, "U" is formed and when the lips are closed, all sounds end in "M".
The three letters symbolize the three states (waking, dream and deep sleep), the three deities (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva), the three Vedas (Rig, Yajur and Sama) the three worlds (Bhuh, Bhuvah, Suvah) etc. The Lord is all these and beyond.
The formless, attributeless Lord (Brahman) is represented by the silence between two Om Chants. Om is also called pranava that means, "that (symbol or sound) by which the Lord is praised". The entire essence of the Vedas is enshrined in the word Om. It is said that the Lord started creating the world after chanting Om and atha. Hence its sound is considered to create an auspicious beginning for any task that we undertake. The Om chant should have the resounding sound of a bell (aaooommm).
Om is written in different ways in different places. The most common form symbolizes Lord Ganesha’s. The upper curve is the head; the lower large one, the stomach; the side one, the trunk; and the semi-circular mark with the dot, the sweetmeat ball (modaka) in Lord Ganesha's hand. Thus Om symbolizes everything - the means and the goal of life, the world and the Truth behind it, the material and the Sacred, all form and the Formless.

22. Why do we do aarati?
Towards the end of every ritualistic worship (pooja or bhajan) of the Lord or to welcome an honored guest or saint, we perform the aarati. This is always accompanied by the ringing of the bell and sometimes by singing, playing of musical instruments and clapping.
It is one of the sixteen steps (shodasha upachaara) of the pooja ritual. It is referred to as the lighted lamp in the right hand, which we wave in a clockwise circling movement to light the entire form of the Lord.
Each part is revealed individually and also the entire form of the Lord. As the light is waved we either do mental or loud chanting of prayers or simply behold the beautiful form of the Lord, illumined by the lamp. At the end of the aarati we place our hands over the flame and then gently touch our eyes and the top of the head.
We have seen and participated in this ritual from our childhood. Let us find out why we do the aarati?
Having worshipped the Lord of love - performing abhisheka, decorating the image and offering fruits and delicacies, we see the beauty of the Lord in all His glory. Our minds are focused on each limb of the Lord as the lamp lights it up. It is akin to silent open-eyed meditation on His beauty. The singing, clapping, ringing of the bell etc. denote the joy and auspiciousness, which accompanies the vision of the Lord.
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Aarati is often performed with camphor. This holds a telling spiritual significance. Camphor when lit, burns itself out completely without leaving a trace of it. It represents our inherent tendencies (vaasanas). When lit by the fire of knowledge which illumines the Lord (Truth), our vaasanas thereafter burn themselves out completely, not leaving a trace of ego which creates in us a sense of individuality that keeps us separate from the Lord.
Also while camphor burns to reveal the glory of Lord, it emits a pleasant perfume even while it sacrifices itself. In our spiritual progress, even as we serve the guru and society, we should willingly sacrifice ourselves and all we have, to spread the "perfume" of love to all. We often wait a long while to see the illumined Lord but when the aarati is actually performed, our eyes close automatically as if to look within. This is to signify that each of us is a temple of the Lord.
Just as the priest reveals the form of the Lord clearly with the aarati flame, so too the guru reveals to us the divinity within each of us with the help of the "flame" of knowledge (or the light of spiritual knowledge). At the end of the aarati, we place our hands over the flame and then touch our eyes and the top of the head. It means - may the light that illuminated the Lord light up my vision; may my vision be divine and my thoughts noble and beautiful.
The philosophical meaning of aarati extends further. The sun, moon, stars, lightning and fire are the natural sources of light. The Lord is the source of this wonderous phenomenon of the universe. It is due to Him alone that all else exist and shine. As we light up the Lord with the flame of the aarati, we turn our attention to the very source of all light, which symbolizes knowledge and life.
Also the sun is the presiding deity of the intellect, the moon, that of the mind, and fire, that of speech. The Lord is the supreme consciousness that illuminates all of them. Without Him, the intellect cannot think, nor can the mind feel nor the tongue speaks. The Lord is beyond the mind, intellect and speech. How can this finite equipment illuminate the Lord? Therefore, as we perform the aarati we chant;
Na tatra suryo bhaati na chandra taarakam Nemaa vidyuto bhaanti kutoyamagnib Tameva bhaantam anubhaati sarvam Tasya bhasa sarvam idam vibhaati
He is there where the sun does not shine, Nor the moon, stars and lightning. then what to talk of this small flame (in my hand), Everything (in the universe) shines only after the Lord, And by His light alone are we all illumined.
Swami Chinmayananda

Free business plan workbook

This workbook asks you many questions. The more you answer the more you understand of your new business.

If some questions do not fit to your kind of business - just delete them. If you miss important questions - then insert them. The workbook is that flexible. You are the one in charge.

This workbook is short and concrete and to benefit fully from the plan you should read the booklet: The Dynamic Business Plan.
Download it at www.dynamicbusinessplan.com

A business plan
A business plan is a description of the firm you are to establish and a plan for how to run and develop it. The plan will gather up the threads from all your other preparations and in this way guarantee that you get around all aspects at business start.

A business plan is also a basis for negotiations with the bank and possibly business connections to convince them to give credit or a loan. It can also help you to convince family/ friends/ parents that it is a serious plan to start your own business.

Follow the chronology of the workbook and you will bit by bit build your own business plan.

Good luck



Mr. Mogens Thomsen, Senior Business Consultant
Proprietor of www.dynamicbusinessplan.com



Front page
Make clear that this is a business plan. If convenient place business name, logo and names of authors here.


(Put in the name of your new business)




Contents
Make it easy to the reader to manage through the plan and look up the different items.


Content

· Background information
· Summary
· Business Concept
· Personal resources and goals
· The product or service
· The market
· Sale and marketing plan
· Management & organisation
· Development of the business
· Budgets
· Financial requirements
· Appendices



Background information

The reader is curious to know who you are. When he continues to read the plan he will bear in mind the impression he got from this first glance of you.

Name/s of owner/s
Address
Telephone
Email
Date of birth
Education
Recent job functions


Summary
The summary should briefly describe the business and highlight its purpose. It must contain the most important information from the business plan.

Place the summary in the beginning of the business plan, but make the summary as the last thing!

Main items:

- Who am I / Who are we?
- What does the firm produce?
- What customers and how many?
- Turnover the first year?
- Profit the first year?
- Needs for funding?

Business concept
A good idea is only a good business idea if you are able to make enough money from it. Sufficient money for you and your family to make a decent living.

Once you have got an idea, in most cases it needs adjusting and further development before it turns into a commercial concept. If the idea is not convertible into a commercial concept then is it not advisable to start a business based on the idea.

Below are topics to help you develop your idea.



The business concept / raison d’être:


Ultra short description of your business and its products (Elevator pitch):


Customers:


What is special about your business compared to your competitors:





Personal resources and goals

What resources can you offer the business? Who are you to enrich the business with dynamism and force?

Below are some useful points of consideration for your self-evaluation:



Your family network


Economy:


Know-how about the product/the services:


My weak points in relation to the business:


My working tasks in the business:


Future prospects for business size:


The product/services

The lifeblood of your business is your service or product. Therefore it is of great importance that you analyse the service/the product from different angles.


The business has the following products/lines/service:
1:
2:
3:


Differences in products/lines/services compared to your competitors:
1:
2:
3:

Purchase frequency/product life span:
1:
2:
3:

Calculation of product/service
Selling price ex. Sales tax
- My cost price:
- transport/custom etc.
= contribution margin:


Product price:
My price:
Market price



Name of contractors:


Kind of distribution of the product:


Name of the trade association:



Other businesses/tenders in this trade:


Number local/total:




Product flow forecast:
The market
When you have decided what product/service you want to sell then you have to localise potential customers. You must do this before making any marketing initiative.
Consider the description of the market as the part of an iceberg lying under water, while the marketing, i.e. brochures, visiting card, advertisements among others are the tiny part of the iceberg above water. In order to make good marketing, it is necessary to obtain a thorough knowledge about the market/customers.



The typical private customer:
Man/woman:
Age:
Education:
Occupation:
Lifestyle:


The typical business customer:
Line of business:
Size/staff:
Age:
Number:


Geographical limits:
In your own country
Foreign countries:


Realistic number of customers:
Arguments:



Average consumption in cash per customer:


Important competitors:
1:

2:


Important competitive parameters on the market:
1:

2:

3:


Assessment of the possibilities on the market for your business:



Threats that may destroy the possibilities:





Sale- and marketing plan

Hopefully you have been very concrete in your description of the market. It will make your work with sale and marketing much easier.
If you know exactly what customer you want to reach then it is easier to choose what means you need in making the marketing and sale activities.


Possible sale- and marketing activities from start:

What is to be done? How? Who? When? Price?

Direct mail:
Internet:
Customer visit:
Telephone sale:
Advertising:
Publications:
Signposting:
Presentation material:
Trade Fair:
Other sort of advertising:
Annual costs for marketing:
Opening market activity:
Price:


Public Relation (PR) at the opening:
“The story” to the journalist:


Relevant medias:


Contact persons:


Press release:

Management & organisation

Describe here how your business is going to work. Take into account what it costs to arrange, furnish and run the business.


Name of business/address/phone no/ fax/ e-mail/ web


Legal status of business:


Owners:


Bank:


Accountant:



Business policies:
Price policy:
Discount policy:
Method of payment:
Guarantee service:
Service:
Staff policy:


Procedure for accountancy - and administrative routines:
Daily accounting:
Sales tax settling:
Send out accounts:
Follow up on unpaid accounts:
Wage settling:
Quarterly accounts:
Order goods:
Write letters to customers/business connections:
Telephone reception:


Insurance subscriptions:
(Industrial injury, trade responsibility, product, moveable, transport of goods, fire, house contents, travels, frozen foods, computers etc)


Name of insurance company:
Prices:


Business partners /consultants

Research and Development

It is often difficult to think of strategic or long-term planning before you have started your business. But it is a strength as a business owner to be able to forecast the outlines of a bigger and prosper business than the one you start today.



Business appearance in one and in three years



The product or service in one and in three years



How is your product or service in one and in three years?



Customers in one and in three years



Financial forecast for year three and year four



Other goals with your business





Budgets
Budgets mean to know how much you need to sell in order to cover costs in other words to put figures on the plans you have made in the previous paragraphs. The more concrete your work has been the easier it is to budget.
The budgets can also help you to concretise your plans and ideas – so go back to your plans if the budget shows that they are unrealistic – or visa versa.
Draw up at least the first two budgets as a part of the business plan.


Establishment budget
The establishment budget will show how much money you need to start your business. It is quite individual what a business needs. A business that produces 10 m cement pipes needs a lot of money for machinery, raw materials and buildings. On the other hand a computer consultant losing software problems only needs the knowledge he/she already has.
Download an establishment budget in excel-spreadsheet from: www.dynamicbusinessplan.com

Operating budget
The operating budget shows the income and the costs you expect in the business, when it has started. The more realistic you make your plans the easier it is to draw up your operating budget.
During your work with the operating budget you often have to go back and change your plans. Your wishes and expectations are not always keeping with reality.
Download an establishment budget in excel-spreadsheet from: www.dynamicbusinessplan.com

Liquidity budget
The liquidity budget will monthly show whether you have money in the bank to pay the expenses you know you will get. In a business you call this the flow of payments.
It is easy to make the first two budgets if you have made a plan for your business. But it is much more difficult to make a liquidity budget as it demands an accountants to make out the many amounts in the budget.

Luckily this is the last budget you have to draw up. Spend your time on the first two budgets and see if you have time to make the liquidity budget.
Download an establishment budget in excel-spreadsheet from: www.dynamicbusinessplan.com
Establishing budget
Below you find some of the most usual expenses when starting a business. Delete the ones you do not encounter in your new company.

Remember: The less expenses the better. All expenses have to be paid from the profit in your new business.

Premises
Rent
Deposit for purchase of premises or business
Deposit (e.g. 3 months rent)
Goodwill - payment to the former owner for his work at the premises
Furnishing and renovation

Production equipment
Machinery
Tools
Other things

Shop fittings
Cash register
Counter
Other things

Office fittings
Furniture ( desk, swivel chair, shelves etc.)
Computer (printer, network)
Telephone
Fax machine
Copying machine
Other things:

Purchase before start
Raw materials/semi manufactured
Manufactured goods (stock)
Stationery
Other things:
Car
Deposit
Other acquisition costs

Counsellors
Lawyer
Accountant
Other

Marketing
Writing paper, business cards
Brochures
Advertisement
Signposting
Opening reception
Other things

Other expenses
Application for a patent/registration
Other things

Total costs is:

Operating budget
Below you find different types of expenses. Maybe your company does not have all the expenses. The just delete the expense. Maybe you have another expense. Then just put it in the budget. The budget must reflect your company.


Sale / Turnover
Sale of product / service no. 1
Sale of product / service no. 2
Sale of product /service no. … Estimate sale for each major product /service

Variable costs
Materials - raw materials and finished products which you use for production or sale
Salary - only for workers in production
Transport costs - and costs related to transport of the raw materials and finished products

Fixed costs
Wages - for staff in shops and offices
Rent - for buildings
Electricity, heat, water
Renovation and maintenance of buildings
Cleaning
Car service/mileage allowance
Travel costs
Stationary telephone
Postage and charges
Mobile phone
Internet-connection
Web site subscription/hosting and upgrading
Marketing/advertisement/advertising
Meeting expenses
Insurances
Computer equipment
Computer network
Leasing-expenses
Minor purchases
Maintenance
Accountant
Lawyer
Other consultancy
Unexpected costs 5% of costs

Interest
Interest on bank loan
Interest on overdraft facility
Other interest

Write-off /depreciation
Plant / buildings
Machinery
Other things

You will find a excel spreadsheets with a pre-defined Operating budget at www.DynamicBusinessPlan.com
Funding
Funding means: Where can I get/borrow the money I need for my business?
First you have to find out how much money you need.

Necessary initial capital:
(Look the establishment budget)

Necessary liquidity:
(Liquidity need is worked out from the liquidity budget)

Total funding needs:
(Establishment + liquidity)


Expectation/commitment to get a loan/grant from:
Owner:
Family:
Bank loan:
Overdraft facility:
Total funding:

Loan guarantee:
Name, address

Investment funding (buildings/machinery)
Savings/capital:
Bank loans:
Credit institution loans
Private loans
Other loans
Investors
Grant
Other
Total




Appendices
Enclose appendices important and relevant to the business. E.g. technical specifications or drafts, written order commitments, references, collaboration etc.

Writing Tips by Renu Balkrishnan

There are certain things one must keep in mind in>order to write something that is interesting enough toread, says Balakrishnan.i. Avoid the conventional form of writing. Think outof the box and spice it up so that it is fun to read."All our lives, we have been taught to write in ato-the-point, linear style. This can be boring to readat times," she says. "We must describe events, and not just state them. Show, rather than tell." She goes onto explain that a good description or conversation is always more interesting to read. Describe vividly so that the reader can actually visualise the setting. ii. Avoid using adverbs (a combination of an adjective and a verb). Instead of writing 'he spoke sadly', use dialogue and description to bring out the sadness. For instance, she says, you could write it like this: 'He sighed and looked at her, a wretched look on his>face. His shoulders slumped as he spoke in a weak voice.' iv. Be honest. The most important quality one must have to be a good writer, says Balakrishnan, is honesty. "Write on something that has happened to you, something that you know and care about. Pretence is of no use, and can put the reader off," she says. v. Write on something you know about. vi. Write, write, write... you only get better with practice! Got an interview? Crack it! Read more, write better When Balakrishnan was teaching at Mumbai's Bombay International School, she remembers that her students' literary habits would rarely go beyond Harry Potter and Amar Chitra Katha. In order to expose students to stories set in modern, urban settings that they would identify with, she>started writing stories herself. Having attended a creative writing programme at the New School, New York, her tryst with creative writing continues today, with her imparting the knowledge she gained through that course to others. She refuses to be called someone who teaches creative writing, though. "Creativity is not taught," she says. "All of us have a creative streak." How to improve your communication skills Express yourself Whatever be one's profession, each and every moment a person goes through can be transformed into interesting reading material. Her workshops, she says, are for people from all spheres of life -- professional writers, journalists, doctors, engineers and students! A bibliophile who also reviews books for Elan Magazine, Balakrishnan commends some of the current crop of writers who have begun to write on issues of the society and youth in an engaging style. Giving the example of Chetan Bhagat's One Night @ The Call Center, where various issues about working in BPOs have been tackled through the eyes of six fictional characters, she says weaving a story around contemporary real-life settings makes for great reading. "Not only does it ensure that the reader enjoys the story, it also makes him think," she says. So take pen to paper and conjure up an entire new world -- a world of words. About the workshop The Creative Writing workshop, conducted by Renu Balakrishnan, will be held at Mumbai's Xavier's Institute of Communication. The workshop will comprise of eight sessions of two hours each. The sessions will be held on November 10, November 17,>November 23, December 1, December 8, December 20 and>January 5, 2006. Fees: Rs 3,000 How to register Register and pay at the Xavier Institute of>Communication Address Xavier Institute of Communication>St Xavier's College Mumbai 400 001 Phones: (022) 22621366/ 1639/ 2877 Renu Balakrishnan: (0) 9821734779/ (022) 22151344 e-mail: xic@vsnl.com Web site: www.xaviercomm.org

Better English

Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "global language". While English is not an official language in many countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world.
Many people across the globe are taught subjects in their vernacular language. This at times becomes a problem when people try to learn English or try to interact with people who mainly speak English. This not only impacts the time taken to learn English but also has an overall impact on pronunciations.
There are some of us who despite graduating from an English School are not up to mark with spoken and written English. Many reasons are attributed to this viz. not paying much attention to the English language, as the primary language used at home is not English and speaking with friends in one’s own mother tongue.
Following are the ways in which you can help yourself to learn and improve English
1. Read as much as possibleReading is the first step to help you on your journey towards improving and learning English. Read as much, whenever and wherever possible. Start with reading the section of the daily newspaper that you like the most. If you are interested in the sports section, then start with reading that. Slowly you will gain interests in reading other sections of the newspaper as well.
Subscribing to a magazine of your interest area will also help you. If you like reading about celebrities then subscribe to a magazine that provides such information. If you like reading about the latest trends in the IT industry then subscribe to a magazine that provides this information. Go ahead and subscribe to the article of your interest area.
Make a point to read at least one book in a month. You could read any book; novels, self help material, business books, subject books, etc.
Reading billboards also helps, as guys from the creative field create some of the best marketing messages and copies that I have ever read. This will help you in improving your vocabulary.
While reading you will encounter some words which you do not understand at all, in such cases you should underline such words and find its meaning using a dictionary and add it in your vocabulary log (more about this ahead in this article).
Looking up the meaning of a word on the Internet is very easy. Visit www.google.com and type in define:word. For example you need to find the meaning of “intuition”, then visit www.google.com and type define:intuition (without any space in between).
2. Watch English Movies, TV Programs and Listen to MusicThe next logical step is to watch as many English Movies and TV Programming as possible. Watching movies and TV programs has an ever lasting impact on you, but beware of movies and TV Soap, Comedy or Drama that uses a lot of slang language. This will destroy your learning process.
I would recommend watching channels like Discovery, National Geographic, History and BBC.
Get MP3s or CDs/Cassettes of some old slow English songs. Keep listening to them till the time you can understand each word sung. This will get you used to various words and will improve your overall understanding of the language.
Again during this exercise note the words that you don’t understand in a vocabulary log (more about this ahead).
3. Get your pronunciations rightWe all have pronunciations for every English word that we use, unfortunately some of it is correct and some incorrect. In the previous point where I asked you to listen and watch as many movies/TV programs/Songs, etc as possible, you should also focus on listening to the pronunciations. If there is a word which you pronounce differently, then try to rehearse that word over and over again till such time where you feel comfortable with the pronunciation and try pronouncing it the same way while speaking.
4. Group LearningHaving a group of 3 – 4 committed friends can help a lot. If you don’t have one, then identify people who are really interested in learning. Form a group and motivate yourself to learn and improve collectively. The more you share, the more you learn. Always understand that having 3 – 4 friends in a group helps because each person in the group is trying his/her best to learn and when each of you in the group shares, you get to learn 3 – 4 new rules, pronunciations and vocabulary.
I would recommend that you forward this article to as many friends as possible and derive a group of 3 – 4 friends who are really serious about learning and helping you learn. Don’t expect to get any luck in the first try. You need to speak with as many friends as possible to get a solid 3 – 4 friend group.
. Speak EnglishReading, listening and improving vocabulary is all good, but not till the time you don’t make use of your learning by speaking and writing (More about writing ahead in the article).
Speak with your friends and family members in English. Initially when your friends and family listen you talk in English, they might give you a negative vibe and reaction as they are not used to hearing you talk in English. Some of your friends might mock at you and laugh at you. Don’t let this bother you. After all it’s your life and you have a mission to improve at English as a language. Take each step as a learning step, you might climb at times and at times fall, but you should only concentrate on improving/learning English. Set it as a goal in life. Read the article on Achieving goals in 5 disciplined steps
6. Increase and improve your VocabularyAs you read newspapers, magazines, online articles or watch movies, TV programs, news or listen to songs you might find words which you don’t fully understand. In such cases note those words in a Vocabulary log (more about vocabulary log later). Once you have noted the words, locate its meaning using an online or offline dictionary and update your vocabulary log.
Trying to use one word to express you is better than creating a sentence with many words. E.g “I am not feeling well” can be said as “I am unwell”. Do you get the point?
You can also improve your vocabulary by trying to solve Cross Word puzzles and by playing various word games available online. This link could help you http://games.yahoo.com/word-games
Note on Vocabulary logThis will be your best friend when it comes to improving your vocabulary. Start with taking a long register and divide that into two parts. The last part of the register should have around 20 – 25 pages and the first half with the balance pages.
On the last 20 – 25 pages, create 4 – 5 columns on all the 20 – 25 pages. Write any word that you don’t understand in the column while reading / listening. You should focus on adding 2 – 3 words every day in those columns.
Once you have written those words, then lookup their meaning using an online/offline dictionary and write the meaning of those words in the first half section of the book and write sentences using those words. You should have atleast 2- 3 sentences written to help you understand different ways to use the word.
7. Seek a mentor to help youSeek a mentor who speaks fluent and impeccable English. This will help you progress much faster than expected. Don’t feel bad if your mentor taunts you or pin points your mistake many times, he/she is just doing his/her job. Just follow your mentor.
You could ask your friend, boss, spouse or neighbor to be your mentor. Let him/her know your goal and intentions and request him/her to guide you through the process of learning. Always speak with him/her in English and ask to be corrected wherever you go wrong.
8. Write short stories and essaysOnce you get a little comfortable with English as a language then start writing short stories and articles on things which interest you the most. You can create an online blog at blogspot.com and create articles about anything. You could be an expert in some area and could write articles on providing solutions to common problems for which people hunt for solutions.
While writing keep in mind to use vocabulary that you have learnt so far and don’t feel shy of what people might think about your article or essays. Just write!
9. Join an English CourseIf you are at the beginner level it is good to enroll yourself for an English course. You need to research on various institutes which offer such a course. It is always best to meet the faculty/teacher before enrolling as this helps you understanding his/her teaching style and process followed.
How to motivate yourself to learn If you are not motivated to learn then you might get frustrated and possibly give up. Ask yourself the following questions and be honest with yourself.
(a)Why do I need to improve English? (b)Where would I need to use English? (c) What skills do you need to improve English (Speaking/Writing/Listening/Reading)? (d) How soon do you need to see results? (e) How much time/money can I devote to improving English?

DirectX explained

Ever wondered just what that enigmatic name means?

Gaming and multimedia applications are some of the most satisfying programs you can get for your PC, but getting them to run properly isn抰 always as easy as it could be. First, the PC architecture was never designed as a gaming platform. Second, the wide-ranging nature of the PC means that one person抯 machine can be different from another. While games consoles all contain the same hardware, PCs don抰: the massive range of difference can make gaming a headache.


To alleviate as much of the pain as possible, Microsoft needed to introduce a common standard which all games and multimedia applications could follow ?a common interface between the OS and whatever hardware is installed in the PC, if you like. This common interface is DirectX, something which can be the source of much confusion.

DirectX is an interface designed to make certain programming tasks much easier, for both the game developer and the rest of us who just want to sit down and play the latest blockbuster. Before we can explain what DirectX is and how it works though, we need a little history lesson.

DirectX history
Any game needs to perform certain tasks again and again. It needs to watch for your input from mouse, joystick or keyboard, and it needs to be able to display screen images and play sounds or music. That抯 pretty much any game at the most simplistic level.

Imagine how incredibly complex this was for programmers developing on the early pre-Windows PC architecture, then. Each programmer needed to develop their own way of reading the keyboard or detecting whether a joystick was even attached, let alone being used to play the game. Specific routines were needed even to display the simplest of images on the screen or play a simple sound.

Essentially, the game programmers were talking directly to your PC抯 hardware at a fundamental level. When Microsoft introduced Windows, it was imperative for the stability and success of the PC platform that things were made easier for both the developer and the player. After all, who would bother writing games for a machine when they had to reinvent the wheel every time they began work on a new game? Microsoft抯 idea was simple: stop programmers talking directly to the hardware, and build a common toolkit which they could use instead. DirectX was born.

How it works
At the most basic level, DirectX is an interface between the hardware in your PC and Windows itself, part of the Windows API or Application Programming Interface. Let抯 look at a practical example. When a game developer wants to play a sound file, it抯 simply a case of using the correct library function. When the game runs, this calls the DirectX API, which in turn plays the sound file. The developer doesn抰 need to know what type of sound card he抯 dealing with, what it抯 capable of, or how to talk to it. Microsoft has provided DirectX, and the sound card manufacturer has provided a DirectX-capable driver. He asks for the sound to be played, and it is ?whichever machine it runs on.

From our point of view as gamers, DirectX also makes things incredibly easy ?at least in theory. You install a new sound card in place of your old one, and it comes with a DirectX driver. Next time you play your favourite game you can still hear sounds and music, and you haven抰 had to make any complex configuration changes.

Originally, DirectX began life as a simple toolkit: early hardware was limited and only the most basic graphical functions were required. As hardware and software has evolved in complexity, so has DirectX. It抯 now much more than a graphical toolkit, and the term has come to encompass a massive selection of routines which deal with all sorts of hardware communication. For example, the DirectInput routines can deal with all sorts of input devices, from simple two-button mice to complex flight joysticks. Other parts include DirectSound for audio devices and DirectPlay provides a toolkit for online or multiplayer gaming.

DirectX versions
The current version of DirectX at time of writing is DirectX 9.0. This runs on all versions of Windows from Windows 98 up to and including Windows Server 2003 along with every revision in between. It doesn抰 run on Windows 95 though: if you have a machine with Windows 95 installed, you抮e stuck with the older and less capable 8.0a. Windows NT 4 also requires a specific version ?in this case, it抯 DirectX 3.0a.

With so many versions of DirectX available over the years, it becomes difficult to keep track of which version you need. In all but the most rare cases, all versions of DirectX are backwardly compatible ?games which say they require DirectX 7 will happily run with more recent versions, but not with older copies. Many current titles explicitly state that they require DirectX 9, and won抰 run without the latest version installed. This is because they make use of new features introduced with this version, although it has been known for lazy developers to specify the very latest version as a requirement when the game in question doesn抰 use any of the new enhancements. Generally speaking though, if a title is version locked like this, you will need to upgrade before you can play. Improvements to the core DirectX code mean you may even see improvements in many titles when you upgrade to the latest build of DirectX. Downloading and installing DirectX need not be complex, either.

Upgrading DirectX
All available versions of Windows come with DirectX in one form or another as a core system component which cannot be removed, so you should always have at least a basic implementation of the system installed on your PC. However, many new games require the very latest version before they work properly, or even at all.

Generally, the best place to install the latest version of DirectX from is the dedicated section of the Microsoft Web site, which is found at www.microsoft.com/windows/directx. As we went to press, the most recent build available for general download was DirectX 9.0b. You can download either a simple installer which will in turn download the components your system requires as it installs, or download the complete distribution package in one go for later offline installation.

Another good source for DirectX is games themselves. If a game requires a specific version, it抣l be on the installation CD and may even be installed automatically by the game抯 installer itself. You won抰 find it on magazine cover discs though, thanks to Microsoft抯 licensing terms.

Diagnosing problems

Diagnosing problems with a DirectX installation can be problematic, especially if you don抰 know which one of the many components is causing your newly purchased game to fall over. Thankfully, Microsoft provides a useful utility called the DirectX Diagnostic Tool, although this isn抰 made obvious. You won抰 find this tool in the Start Menu with any version of Windows, and each tends to install it in a different place.

The easiest way to use it is to open the Start Menu抯 Run dialog, type in dxdiag and then click OK. When the application first loads, it takes a few seconds to interrogate your DirectX installation and find any problems. First, the DirectX Files tab displays version information on each one of the files your installation uses. The Notes section at the bottom is worth checking, as missing or corrupted files will be flagged here.

The tabs marked Display, Sound, Music, Input and Network all relate to specific areas of DirectX, and all but the Input tab provide tools to test the correct functioning on your hardware. Finally, the More Help tab provides a useful way to start the DirectX Troubleshooter, Microsoft抯 simple linear problem solving tool for many common DirectX issues

TCP\IP

A Mammoth Description By Ankit Fadia ankit@bol.net.in

TCP\IP or Transmission Control Protocol \ Internet Protocol is a stack or collection of various protocols. A
protocol is basically the commands or instructions using which two computers within a local network or the
Internet can exchange data or information and resources.

Transmission Control Protocol \ Internet Protocol or the TCP\IP was developed around the time of the
ARPAnet. It is also known as the Protocol Suite. It consists of various protocols but as the TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and the IP (Internet Protocol) are the most, well known of the suite of
protocols, the entire family or suite is called the TCP\IP suite.

The TCP\ IP Suite is a stacked suite with various layers stacked on each other, each layer looking after one
aspect of the data transfer. Data is transferred from one layer to the other. The Entire TCP\ IP suite can be
broken down into the below layers-:

Layer Name Protocol

Link Layer (Hardware, Ethernet) ARP, RARP, PPP, Ether
Network Layer(The Invisible Layer) IP, ICMP
Transport Layer UDP, TCP
Application Layer(The Visible Layer) The Actual running Applications like-: FTP client, Browser
Physical Layer (Not part of TCP \IP) Physical Data Cables, Telephone wires

Data travels from the Link Layer down to the Physical Layer at the source and at the destination it travels
from the Physical Layer to the Link Layer. We will later discuss what each layer and each protocol does.

The TCP\IP suite not only helps to transfer data but also has to correct various problems that might occur
during the data transfer. There are basically two types of most common errors that might occur during the
process of data transfer. They are-:

Data Corruption -: In this kind of error, the data reaches the destination after getting corrupted.
Data Loss -: In this kind of error, the entire collection of packets which constitute the data to be transferred
does not reach the destination.

TCP\IP expects such errors to take place and has certain features which prevent, such error which might
occur.

Checksums-: A checksum is a value (Normally, a 16 Bit Value) that is formed by summing up the Binary
Data in the used program for a given data block. The program being used is responsible for the calculation
of the Checksum value. The data being sent by the program sends this calculated checksum value, along
with the data packets to the destination. When the program running at the destination receives the data
packets, it re-calculates the Checksum value. If the Checksum value calculated by the Destination program
matches with the Checksum Value attached to the Data Packets by the Source Program match, then the data
transfer is said to be valid and error free. Checksum is calculated by adding up all the octets in a datagram.


Packet Sequencing-: All data being transferred on the net is broken down into packets at the source and
joined together at the destination. The data is broken down into packets in a particular sequence at the
source. This means that, for example, the first byte has the first sequence number and the second byte the
second sequence number and so on. These packets are free to travel independently on the net, so
sometimes, when the data packets reach the destination they arrive, out of sequence, which means that the
packet which had the first sequence number attached to it does not reach the destination first. Sequencing
defines the order in which the hosts receive the data packets or messages. The application or the layer
running at the destination automatically builds up the data from the sequence number in each packet.
The source system breaks the data to be transferred into smaller packets and assigns each packet a unique
sequence number. When the destination gets the packets, it's starts rearranging the packets by reading the
sequence numbers of each packet to make the data received usable.

For example, say you want to transfer a 18000 octet file. Not all networks can handle the entire 18000
octet packets at a time. So the huge file is broken down into smaller say 300 octet packets. Each packet has
been assigned a unique sequence number. Now when the packets reach the destination the packets are put
back together to get the usable data. Now during the transportation process, as the packets can move
independently on the net, it is possible that the packet 5 will arrive at the destination before packet 4
arrives. In such a situation, the sequence numbers are used by the destination to rearrange the data packets
in such a way that even if Data packet 5 arrived earlier, Packet 4 will always precede Packet 5.

A data can easily be corrupted while it is being transferred from the source to the destination. Now if a
error control service is running then if it detects data corruption, then it asks the source to re-send the
packets of data. Thus only non corrupted data reaches the destination. An error control service detects and
controls the same two types of errors-:

1.) Data Loss
2.) Data Corruption

The Checksum values are used to detect if the data has been modified or corrupted during the transfer from
source to destination or any corruption in the communication channel which may have caused data loss.
Data Corruption is detected by the Checksum Values and by performing Cyclic Redundancy Checks
(CRC 's). CRC 's too like the Checksums are integer values but require intensely advanced calculation and
hence are rarely used.

There is yet another way of detecting data corruption-: Handshaking.

This feature ensures demands that both the source and destination must transmit and receive
acknowledgement messages, that confirm transfer of uncorrupted data. Such acknowledgement messages
are known as ACK messages.

Let's take an example of a typical scenario of data transfer between two systems.
Source Sends MSG1 to Destination. It will not send MSG2 to Destination unless and until it gets the MSG
ACK and destination will not send more requests for data or the next request message (MSG2) unless it
gets the ACK from Source confirming that the MSG1 ACK was received by it. If the source does not get a
ACK message from the destination, then something which is called a timed-out occurs and the source will
re send the data to destination.

So this means that if A sends a data packet to B and B checksums the data packet and finds the data
corrupted, then it can simply delete for a time out to take place. Once the time out takes place, A will re
send the data packet to B. But this kind of system of deleting corrupt data is not used as it is inefficient and
time consuming.

Instead of deleting the corrupt data and waiting for a time out to take place, the destination (B) sends a not
acknowledged or NACK message to source(A). When A gets the NACK message, instead of waiting for a
time out to take place, it straightaway resends the data packet.

An ACK message of 1000 would mean that all data up to 1000 octets has been received till now.

TCP/ IP is a layered suite of protocols. All layers are equally important and with the absence of even a
single layer, data transfer would not have been possible. Each TCP/ IP layer contributes to the entire
process of data transfer. An excellent example, is when you send an email. For sending mail there is a
separate protocol, the SMTP protocol which belongs to the Application layer. The SMTP Application
protocol like all other application layer protocols assumes that there is a reliable connection existing
between the two computers. For the SMTP application protocol to do what it is designed for, i.e. to send
mail, it requires the existence of all other Layers as well. The Physical Layer i.e. cables and wires is
required to transport the data physically. The Transmission Control Protocol or the TCP protocol which
belongs to the Transport Layer is needed to keep track of the number of packets sent and for error
correction. It is this protocol that makes sure that the data reaches the other end. The TCP protocol is called
by the Application Protocol to ensure error free communication between the source and destination. For the
TCP layer to do its work properly i.e. to ensure that the data packets reach the destination, it requires the
existence of the Internet Protocol or IP. The IP protocol contains the Checksum and Source and
Destination IP address.

You may wonder why do we need different protocols like TCP and IP and why not bundle them into the
same Application protocol.? The TCP protocol contains commands or functions which are needed by
various application protocols like FTP, SMTP and also HTTP. The TCP protocol also calls on the IP
protocol, which in turn contains commands or functions which some application protocols require while
others don?t. So rather than bundling the entire TCP and IP protocol set into specific application protocols,
it is better to have different protocols which are called whenever required.

The Link Layer which is the Hardware or Ethernet layer is also needed for transportation of the data
packets. The PPP or the Point to Point Protocol belongs to this layer. Before we go on let's get accustomed
with certain TCP\IP terms. Most people get confused between datagrams and packets and think that they
are one and the same thing . You see, a datagram is a unit of data which is used by various protocols and a
packet is a physical object or thing which moves on a physical medium like a wire. There is a remarkable
difference between a Packet and a Datagram, but it is beyond the scope of this book. To make things easier
I will use only the term datagram (Actually this is the official term.)while discussing various protocols.

Two different main protocols are involved in transporting packets from source to destination.

1.) The Transmission Control Protocol or the TCP Protocol
2.) The Internet Protocol or the IP protocol.

Besides these two main protocols, the Physical Layer and the Ethernet Layer are also indispensable to data
transfer.

THE TRANSPORT LAYER

The TCP protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for breaking up the data into smaller datagrams and
putting the datagrams back to form usable data at the destination. It also resends the lost datagrams to
destination where the received datagrams are reassembled in the right order. The TCP protocol does the
bulk of work but without the IP protocol, it cannot transfer data.

Let's take an example to make things more clearer. Let's say your Internet Protocol Address or IP address is
xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx or simply x and the destination's IP is yyy.yyy.yyy.yyy or simply y. Now As soon as the
three-way connection is established between x and y, x knows the destination IP address and also the Port
to which it is connected to. Both x and y are in different networks which can handle different sized packets.
So in order to send datagrams which are in receivable size, x must know what is the maximum datagram
size which y can handle. This too is determined by both x and y during connection time.

So once x knows the maximum size of the datagram which y can handle, it breaks down the data into
smaller chunks or datagrams. Each datagram has it's own TCP header which too is put by TCP.
A TCP Header contains a lot of information, but the most important of it is the Source and Destination IP
and Port numbers and yes also the sequence number.

**************
HACKING TRUTH: Learn more about Ports, IP's, Sockets in the Net Tools Manual
**************
The source which is your computer(x) now knows what the IP Addresses and Port Numbers of the
Destination and Source computers are. It now calculates the Checksum value by adding up all the octets of
the datagram and puts the final checksum value to the TCP Header. The different octets and not the
datagrams are then numbered. An octet would be a smaller broken down form of the entire data. TCP then
puts all this information into the TCP header of each datagram. A TCP Header of a datagram would finally
look like -:


- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Source Port | Destination Port |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Sequence Number |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Acknowledgment Number |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Data | |U|A|P|R|S|F| |
| Offset| Reserved |R|C|S|S|Y|I| Window |
| | |G|K|H|T|N|N| |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Checksum | Urgent Pointer |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| The Actual Data form the next 500 octets |
| |


There are certain new fields in the TCP header which you may not know off. Let's see what these new
fields signify. The Windows field specifies the octets of new data which is ready to be processed. You see
not all computers connected to the Internet run at the same speed and to ensure that a faster system does not
send datagrams to a slow system at a rate which is faster than it can handle, we use the Window field. As
the computer receives data , the space in the Window field gets decreased indicating that the receiver has
received the data. When it reaches zero the sender stops sending further packets. Once the receiver finishes
processing the received data, it increases the Window field, which in turn indicates that the receiver has
processed the earlier sent data and is ready to receive more chunks of data.

The Urgent Field tells the remote computer to stop processing the last octet and instead receive the new
octet. This is normally not commonly used.

The TCP protocol is a reliable protocol, which means that we have a guarantee that the data will arrive at
the destination properly and without any errors. It ensures that the data being received by the receiving end
is arranged in the same correct order in which it was sent.

The TCP Protocol relies on a virtual circuit between the client and the host. The circuit is opened via a 3
part process known as the three part handshake. It supports full duplex transportation of data which means
that it provides a path for two way data transfer. Hence using the TCP protocol, a computer can send and
receive datagrams at the same time.

Some common flags of TCP are-:

RST [RESET]- Resets the connection.
PSH [PUSH] - Tells receiver to pass all queued data to the application running.
FIN [FINISH] - Closes connection following the 4 step process.
SYN Flag - means that the machine sending this flag wants to establish a three way handshake i.e.
a TCP connection. The receiver of a SYN flag usually responds with an ACK message.

So now we are in a position to represent a three way TCP Handshake:

A <---SYN---> B
A <---SYN/ACK? B
A <---ACK---> B

A sends a SYN flag to B saying " I want to establish a TCP connection", B responds to the SYN with the
ACK to the SYN flag. A again responds to the ACK sent by B with another ACK.

Read RFC 793 for further in depth details about the TCP protocol.

The User Datagram Protocol or the UDP Protocol

The User Data protocol or the UDP is yet another protocol which is a member of the Transport Layer. TCP
is the standard protocol used by all systems for communications. TCP is used to break down the data to be
transported into smaller datagrams, before they (the datagrams) are sent across a network. Thus we can say
that TCP is used where more than a single or multiple datagrams are involved.

Sometimes, the data to be transported is able to fit into a single datagram. We do not need to break the data
into smaller datagrams as the size of the data is pretty small. The perfect example of such data is the DNS
system. To send out the query for a particular domain name, a single datagram is more than enough. Also
the IP that is returned by the Domain Name Server does not require more than one datagram for
transportation. So in such cases instead of making use of the complex TCP protocol, applications fall back
to the UDP protocol.

The UDP protocol works almost the way TCP works. But the only differences being that TCP breaks the
data to be transferred into smaller chunks, does sequencing by inserting a sequence number in the header
and no error control. Thus we can conclude by saying that the UDP protocol is an unreliable protocol with
no way to confirm that the data has reached the destination.

The UDP protocol does insert a USP header to the single datagram it is transporting. The UDP header
contains the Source and Destination IP Addresses and Port Numbers and also the Checksum value. The
UDP header is comparatively smaller than the TCP Header.

It is used by those applications where small chunks of data are involved. It offers services to the User's
Network Applications like NFS(Network File Sharing) and SNMP.

Read RFC 768 for further in depth details about the UDP protocol.

THE NETWORK LAYER

The IP Protocol

Both the TCP and the UDP protocols, after inserting the headers to the datagram(s) given to them pass
them to the Internet Protocol or the IP Protocol. The main job of the IP protocol is to find a way of
transporting the datagrams to the destination receiver. It does not do any kind of error checking.

The IP protocol too adds it's own IP Header to each datagram. The IP header contains the source and
destination IP addresses, the protocol number and yet another checksum. The IP header of a particular
datagram looks like-:

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
|Version| IHL |Type of Service| Total Length |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Identification |Flags| Fragment Offset |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Time to Live | Protocol | Header Checksum |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Source Address |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Destination Address |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| TCP header info followed by the actual data being transferred|
| |


The Source and destination IP addresses and needed so that?well it is obvious isn't it? The Protocol
number is added so that the IP protocol knows to which Transport Protocol the datagram has to be passed.
You see various Transport Protocols are used like for example TCP or UDP. So this protocol number is
inserted to tell IP the protocol to which the datagram has to be passed.

It too inserts it's own Checksum value which is different from the Checksum Value inserted by the
Transport Protocols. This Checksum has to be inserted as without it the Internet Protocol will not be able to
verify if the Header has been damaged in the transfer process and hence the datagram might reach a wrong
destination. The Time to Live field specifies a value which is decreased each time the datagram passes
through a network. Remember Tracert?

The Internet Protocol Header contains other fields as well, but they are quite advanced and cannot be
included in a manual which gives an introduction to the TCP\IP protocol. To learn more about the IP
protocol read RFC 791.

The Internet Control Message Protocol or the ICMP

The ICMP protocol allows hosts to transfer information on errors that might have occurred during the data
transfer between two hosts. It is basically used to display error messages about errors that might occur
during the data transfer. The ICMP is a very simple protocol without any headers. It is most commonly
used to diagnose Network Problems. The famous utility PING is a part of the ICMP protocol. ICMP
requests do not require the user or application to mention any port number as all ICMP requests are
answered by the Network Software itself. The ICMP protocol too handles only a single datagram. That's
why we say in PING only a single datagram is sent to the remote computer. This protocol can remote many
network problems like Host Down, Congested Network etc

Read RFC 792 for further in depth details about the ICMP protocol.

The Link Layer

Almost all networks use Ethernet. Each machine in a network has it's own IP address and it's Ether
Address. The Ether Address of a computer is different than it's IP address. An Ether Address is a 42 bit
address while the IP address is only a 32 bit address. A Network must know which computer to deliver the
datagram to. Right? For this the Ether Header is used.

The Ether Header is a 14 octet header that contains the Source and Destination Ethernet address, and a type
code. Ether too calculates it's own Checksum value. The Type code relates to the protocol families to be
used within the Network. The Ether Layer passes the datagram to the protocol specified by this field after
inserting the Ether Header. There is simply no connection between the Ethernet Address and the IP address
of a machine. Each machine needs to have a Ethernet to IP address translation table on its hard disk.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Ethernet destination address (first 32 bits) |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Ethernet dest (last 16 bits) |Ethernet source (first 16 bits) |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Ethernet source address (last 32 bits) |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Type code |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| IP header, then TCP header, then your data |
| |
| |
| |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Ethernet Checksum |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Address Resolution Protocol or ARP

Data before being transmitted across the Internet or across a local network is broken down into smaller
Packets which are suitable for transfer over the net. These packets have the Source and Destination IP's but
for the transfer to take place the suitable Hardware Addresses or the MAC addresses must also be known.
That is where ARP comes in.

To get the Hardware MAC addresses, ARP or Address Resolution Protocol sends a request message. The
Router replies with the Hardware Address. It is similar to the DNS and it too has a cache. This cache can be
a bit vulnerable as a Hacker could forge a connection from a remote machine claiming to be one of the
cached locations. So we can conclude that ARP translates IP's into Ethernet Addresses. One thing to
remember about ARP is that it only translates outgoing packets.

There is also something called the RARP which is an abbreviation for Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol, which like the name says does exactly reverse of what ARP does.

There is simply no algorithm to get the Ethernet Address from the IP Address. To carry out such
translations, each computer has a file which has a table with rows for each computer and two columns for
their corresponding IP address and Ethernet Address. The File is somewhat like the following-:

Internet Protocol Address Ethernet Address
Computer Name xxx.xy.yy.yx 08-00-39-00-2F-C3

Say there are a system in a Network (A) and an unidentified system (B) contacts it. Now A only knows the
IP address of B. Now A will first try to identify whether B is the same network so that it can directly
communicate via Ethernet. So it will first check the IP to MAC address translation table which it has. If it
finds the IP in the table then well and good and A will establish a connection with B via Ethernet.

On the Other hand if A does not find any match for the specific IP, it will send out a request in the form of
a 'Broadcast'. All computers within the Network will receive this broadcast and will search their own IP to
MAC translation table and will reply with the necessary MAC address. A basic difference between an Ip
address and MAC address is that an IP is the form xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx and a MAC address is in the form
xx:xx:xx:xx:xx:xx and one is 32 bit while the other is 40 bit.

Read RFC 826 for further in depth details about the ARP protocol.

Application Layer

Till now you have learnt how data is broken down into smaller chunks, and transferred to the destination,
where the chunks are rearranged. But there is yet another aspect to a successful data transfer process, which
we have not discussed yet: The Application Protocols and the Application Layer itself. A host which
receives datagrams has many applications or services (daemons) running which are ready to establish a
TCP connection and accept a message. Datagrams travelling on the Internet must know which application
they have to establish connection with, which application they have to send the message to. A typical web
server will have the FTP daemon, the HTTP daemon, the POP daemon, and the SMTP daemon running.
Wouldn't the datagrams get confused as to which daemon to send the message to.

For the datagrams to know which computer to send the message to, we have IP addresses. The datagram
knows what daemon or application to send the message to by the Port Number attached to the IP address of
the Destination. A TCP address is actually fully described by 4 numbers; The IP address of the Source and
Destination and the TCP Port Numbers of each end to which data is to be sent. These numbers are found in
the TCP Header.

To make it simpler to understand I have included an excerpt from the Net Tools Chapter:

What is all the hype about socket programming? What exactly are sockets?

TCP\IP or Transmission Control Protocol\ Internet Protocol is the language or the protocol used by
computers to communicate with each other over the Internet. Say a computer whose IP address is
99.99.99.99 wants to communicate with another machine whose IP address is 98.98.98.98 then would will
happen?

The machine whose IP is 99.99.99.99 sends a packet addressed to another machine whose IP is
98.98.98.98. When 98.98.98.98 receives the packet then it verifies that it got the message by sending a
signal back to 99.99.99.99.But say the person who is using 99.99.99.99 wants to have simultaneously more
than one connections to 98.98.98.98.....then what will happen? Say 99.99.99.99 wants to connect to
the FTP daemon and download a file by FTP and at the same time it wants to connect to 98.98.98.98's
website i.e. The HTTP daemon. Then 98.98.98.98. will have 2 connects with 99.99.99.99 simultaneously.
Now how can 98.98.98.98.distinguish between the two connections...how does 98.98.98.98. know which
is for the FTP daemon and which for the HTTP daemon? If there was no way to distinguish between the
two connections then they would both get mixed up and there would be a lot of chaos with the message
meant for the HTTP daemon going to the FTP daemon. To avoid such confusion we have ports. At each
port a particular service or daemon is running by default. So now that the 99.99.99.99 computers knows
which port to connect to, to download a FTP file and which port to connect to, to download the web page,
it will communicate with the 98.98.98.98 machine using what is known as the socket pair which is a
combination of an IP address and a Port. So in the above case the message which is meant for the FTP
daemon will be addressed to 98.98.98.98 : 21 (Notice the colon and the default FTP port suceeding it.).
So that the receiving machine i.e. 98.98.98.98 will know for which service this message is meant for and to
which port it should be directed to.

In TCP\IP or over the Internet all communication is done using the Socket pair i.e. the combination of the
IP address and the port.

*****************
HACKING TRUTH: Learn More about Ports, IP addresses and Sockets by reading the Net Tools Chapter.
*****************
The Application Layers basically consists of the Applications running on your computer and the
Applications running on the host to which you are connected. Say you are viewing the Hotmail Site, then
the application layer comprises of the Web Browser running on your computer and the HTTP daemon
running at Hotmail's server and the Application Protocol being used to communicate is HyperText Transfer
Protocol.

As soon as a TCP connection is established the Applications running on Each end decide the language or
protocol to be used to communicate and send datagrams.

IP Spoofing Torn Apart

IP spoofing is the most exciting topic you will hear wannabe hackers talking about. It is also a subject
about which no one knows much. Before we continue I would like to tell you that IP Spoofing is quite
difficult to understand and a lot of people have trouble understanding how it is done. The other downside it
has is the fact that it can almost not be done using a Windows system and a system administrator can easily
protect his system from IP spoofing

So what is IP Spoofing? IP Spoofing is a trick played on servers to fool the target computer into thinking
that it is receiving data from a source other than you. This in turn basically means to send data to a remote
host so that it believes that the data is coming from a computer whose IP address is something other than
yours. Let's take an example to make it clear:

Your IP is : 203.45.98.01 (REAL)
IP of Victim computer is: 202.14.12.1 (VICTIM)
IP you want data to be sent from: 173.23.45.89 (FAKE)

Normally sitting on the computer whose IP is REAL, the datagrams you send to VICTIM will appear to
have come from REAL. Now consider a situation in which you want to send a datagram to VICTIM and
make him believe that it came from a computer whose IP is FAKE. This is when you perform IP Spoofing.

The Main problem with IP Spoofing is that even if you are able to send a spoofed datagram to the remote
host, the remote host will reply not to your real IP but to the Fake IP you made your datagram seem to have
come from. Getting confused? Read the following example to clear up your mind.

Taking the same IP's as in the last example, consider the following scenario. Now, if REAL connects to
VICTIM, after the standard three way handshake has taken place, and VICTIM sends an ACK message to
REAL. Now if you spoof you IP, to say FAKE, then VICTIM will try to establish a TCP connection and
will send an ACK message to FAKE. Now lets assume that FAKE is alive, then as it had not requested the
ACK message (sent by VICTIM to FAKE) it will reply with a NACK message which would basically end
the connection and no further communication between FAKE and VICTIM would take place. Now if
FAKE doesn't exist then the ACK message sent by VICTIM will not get any reply and in the end the
connection times out.

Due to this FAKE and REAL IP reasons, when a person is trying to perform an IP Spoof, he does not get
any response from the remote host and has no clue whether he has been successful or not. If he has made
any progress or not. You are as good as blind, with no medium through which you could get feedback.

IP Spoofing can be successful only if the computer with the FAKE IP does not reply to the victim and not
interrupt the spoofed connection. Take the example of a telephone conversation, you can call up a person
' x ' and pretend to be ' y ' as long as ' y ' does not interrupt the conversation and give the game away.

So why would you need to perform IP Spoofing-:

1.) To Pretend that you are some other computer whose IP address is amongst the trusted list of computers
on the victim's disk. This way you are exploit the 'r' services and gain access to the network as you are
then believed to be from a trusted source.
2.) To Disguise or Mask your IP address so that the victim does not know who you really are and where
the data is coming from.

If you ever read the alt.2600 or the alt.hacking newsgroup, you would probably find many postings like "I
have Win98, how do I Spoof my IP" or even " I do not know TCP/IP. tell me how to perform IP spoofing".
You see the very fact that they are posting such questions and expect to learn how to spoof their IP without
even knowing a bit about TCP\IP, confirms the fact that they would not be able to perform IP Spoofing. No
I am not saying that asking questions is bad, but you see not knowing something is not so bad, but not
knowing something and showing ignorance towards learning it is really, really bad.

You see IP spoofing is a very complex and difficult to perform subject. You need to hog entire TCP/IP and
Networking Protocols manuals and need to be able to write C programs which will help you in the
Spoofing process. It is amazing how people even think that they can spoof their IP without even knowing
what TCP/IP stands for.

You see all packets travelling across the Internet have headers which contain the source and destination IP
addresses and port numbers, so that the packet knows where to go and the destination knows where the
packet has come from and where to respond. Now the process of Spoofing means to change the source IP
address contains by the Header of the packet, in turn fooling the receiver of the Packets into believing that
the packet came from somewhere else, which is a fake IP. Now let's again look at the IP Header of a
datagram.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
|Version| IHL |Type of Service| Total Length |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Identification |Flags| Fragment Offset |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Time to Live | Protocol | Header Checksum |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Source Address |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Destination Address |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| TCP header info followed by the actual data being transferred |
|

Now basically to perform IP spoofing we need to be able to change the value of the field, Source Address.
Now to this you need to be able to guess sequence numbers which is quite a sophisticated process and I will
try to explain it as clearly as possible. Before we go on, you need to understand the fact the IP spoofing is
not the entire process, it is just a stepping stop in the entire process of fooling the remote host and
establishing a trust relationship with the remote host.

So how do these trust relationships take place? Well all of you are encountered with some form of
authentication process or the other. Now the Username-Password pair is the most commonly used form of
authentication, with which we are very much familiar. Now what happens in the Username-Password form
of authentication is that the remote host to which the client is connected to challenges the client by asking
the User to type in the Username and Password. So in this form of authentication, the User needs to
intervened and the remote host challenges the user to enter the Username and Password which act as a from
of authentication.

Now other than the Password-Username form of authentication there is yet another form of authentication
most users do not know of. This is the Client IP. In this form of authentication, what happens is that the
remote host gets or find out the IP address of the client and compares it with a predefined list of IP's. If the
IP of the client who is trying to establish a connection with the remote host is found in the list of IP's
maintained by the host, then it allows the client access to the shell 'without a password' as the identity of
the client has already been authenticated.

Such kind of rust relationships are common in Unix Systems which have certain 'R services' like rsh ,
rlogin , rcp which have certain security problems and should be avoided. Despite the threat involved most
ISP's in India still keep the ports of the R services open to be exploited by Hackers. You normally establish
a Rlogin trust relationship by using the Unix command,

$>rlogin IP address

**************
HACKING TRUTH: Well there is definitely a cooler way of establishing a trust relationship with a remote
host, using Telnet. The default port numbers at which the R services run are 512, 513,514
**************

So how do I spoof my IP? Well in short, to spoof your IP, you need to be able to predict sequence numbers,
this will clearer after reading then next few paragraphs.

To understand Sequence Numbers you need to go back to, how the TCP protocol works. You already
know that TCP is a reliable protocol and has certain in-built features which have the ability to rearrange, re-
send lost, duplicated or out of sequence data. To make sure that the destination is able to rearrange the
datagrams in the correct order, TCP inserts two sequence numbers into each TCP datagram. One Sequence
number tells the receiving computer where a particular datagram belongs while the second sequence
number says how much data has been received by the sender. Anyway, let's move on, TCP also relies on
ACK and NACK messages to ensure that all datagrams have reached the destination error free.
Now we need to reanalyze the TCP Header to understand certain other aspects of sequence numbers and
the ACK Number.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Source Port | Destination Port |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Sequence Number |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Acknowledgment Number |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Data | |U|A|P|R|S|F| |
| Offset| Reserved |R|C|S|S|Y|I| Window |
| | |G|K|H|T|N|N| |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| Checksum | Urgent Pointer |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| The Actual Data form the next 500 octets |
| |

You see the TCP Header contains a Sequence Number which actually represents the sequence number of
the first byte of that particular TCP segment. A sequence number is a 32 Bit number which is attached to
all bytes (data) being exchanged across a Network. The ACK Number Field in the TCP header, actually
contains the value of the sequence number which it expects to be the next. Not only that, it also does what
it was meant to do, acknowledge data received. Confused? Read it again till you get the hang of it.

When a connection is established, the initial sequence number or ISN is initialized to 1. This ISN number
is then incremented by 128,000 every second. There is a certain patter according to which the sequence
numbers increment or change which makes then easy to predict.

To successfully perform IP spoofing or in order to predict Sequence Numbers, you need to be running a
form of UNIX, as Windows does not provide the users with access to really advanced system stuff.
Without a form of Unix IP Spoofing is almost impossible to do.

This text is not the ultimate guide to IP Spoofing and was aimed at only giving you a general outline of the
whole process. Sequence number Prediction is really, really sophisticated and difficult to understand, but
not impossible to do. However a system administrator can easily save his systems from IP spoofing and this
actually makes it quite useless, nonetheless truly exciting. If You really want to learn IP Spoofing I suggest
you read IP Spoofing Demystified by daemon9/route/infinity which was a part of Issue 48 of PHRACK
magazine, File 14 of 18. Go to the Archive Section of their site, http://www.phrack.com and click on Issue
48.

This brings me to the other purpose people use IP Spoofing, IP Masking. Now to something as simple as
mask or hide your IP you do not need to go through the complex procedure of guessing sequence numbers
and performing IP Spoofing. There are proxy servers to do that for you. Read the Net Tools chapter for
further details.

Port Scanning in Networking Terms

Earlier we learnt what a Port scan is why it is considered to be such a important tool of getting information
about the remote host, which in turn can be used to exploit any vulnerabilities and break into the system.
We all know how a manual Port Scan works. You launch Telnet and manually Telnet to each Port jotting
down information that you think is important. In a manual Port Scan, when you telnet to a port of a remote
host, a full three way handshake takes place, which means that a complete TCP connection opens.

The earliest and the oldest version of Port Scanners used the same technique. They connected to each port
and established a full three way handshake for a complete TCP connection. The downside of such port
scanners was the fact that as a full TCP connection was being established, the system administrator could
easily detect that someone is trying to port scan his systems to find a vulnerability. However such port
scanning methods also had a bright side, as an actual TCP connection was being established, the port
scanning software did not have to build a Fake Internet Protocol Packet. (This IP Packet is used to scan the
remote systems.) Such TCP scanners too relied on the three-way TCP handshake to detect if a port is open
or not. The Basic process of detecting whether a port is open or not has been described below:

1.) You send a TCP Packet containing the SYN flag to remote host.
2.) Now the remote host checks whether the port is open or not. If the port is open then it replies with a
TCP packet containing both an ACK message confirming that the port is open and a SYN flag. On the
other hand if the port is closed then the remote host sends the RST flag which resets the connection, in
short closes the connection.
3.) This third phase is optional and involves the sending of an ACK message by the client.

As TCP Scanners were detectable, programmers around the world developed a new kind of port scanner,
the SYN Scanner, which did not establish a complete TCP connection. These kinds of port scanners remain
undetectable by only sending the first single TCP Packet containing the SYN flag and establishing a half
TCP Connection. T understand the working of a SYN or Half SYN Port Scanner simply read its 4 step
working-:

1. SYN Port Scanner sends the first TCP packet containing the SYN flag to the remote host.
2. The remote system replies with, either a SYN plus ACK or a RST.
3. When the SYN Port scanner receives one of the above responses, it knows whether the respective port
is open or not and whether a daemon is ready listening for connections.

The SYN Port Scanners were undetectable by most normal system port scan detectors, however newer post
scan detectors like netstat and also some firewalls can filter out such scans. Another downside to such
scanning is that the method in which the scanner makes the IP packet varies from system to system.

UDP Scanning

It is yet another port scanning technique which can be used to scan a UDP port to see if it is listening. To
detect an open UDP port, simply send a single UDP Packet to the port. If it is listening, you will get the
response, if it is not, then ICMP takes over and displays the error message, " Destination Port
Unreachable".

FIN Port Scanners

FIN Port Scanners are my favorite type of port scanners. They send a single packet containg the FIN flag. If
the remote host returns a RST flag then the port is closed, if no RST flag is returned, then it is open and
listening.

Some port scanners also use the technique of sending a ACK packet and if the Time To Live or ttl of the
returning packets is lower than the RST packets received (earlier), or if the windows size is greater than
zero, then the port is probably open and listening.

The Following is the code of a supposedly Stealth Port Scanner which appeared in the Phrack Magazine.

/*
* scantcp.c
*
* version 1.32
*
* Scans for listening TCP ports by sending packets to them and waiting for
* replies. Relys upon the TCP specs and some TCP implementation bugs found
* when viewing tcpdump logs.
*
* As always, portions recycled (eventually, with some stops) from n00k.c
* (Wow, that little piece of code I wrote long ago still serves as the base
* interface for newer tools)
*
* Technique:
* 1. Active scanning: not supported - why bother.
*
* 2. Half-open scanning:
* a. send SYN
* b. if reply is SYN|ACK send RST, port is listening
* c. if reply is RST, port is not listening
*
* 3. Stealth scanning: (works on nearly all systems tested)
* a. sends FIN
* b. if RST is returned, not listening.
* c. otherwise, port is probably listening.
*
* (This bug in many TCP implementations is not limited to FIN only; in fact
* many other flag combinations will have similar effects. FIN alone was
* selected because always returns a plain RST when not listening, and the
* code here was fit to handle RSTs already so it took me like 2 minutes
* to add this scanning method)
*
* 4. Stealth scanning: (may not work on all systems)
* a. sends ACK
* b. waits for RST
* c. if TTL is low or window is not 0, port is probably listening.
*
* (stealth scanning was created after I watched some tcpdump logs with
* these symptoms. The low-TTL implementation bug is currently believed
* to appear on Linux only, the non-zero window on ACK seems to exists on
* all BSDs.)
*
* CHANGES:
* --------
* 0. (v1.0)
* - First code, worked but was put aside since I didn't have time nor
* need to continue developing it.
* 1. (v1.1)
* - BASE CODE MOSTLY REWRITTEN (the old code wasn't that maintainable)
* - Added code to actually enforce the usecond-delay without usleep()
* (replies might be lost if usleep()ing)
* 2. (v1.2)
* - Added another stealth scanning method (FIN).
* Tested and passed on:
* AIX 3
* AIX 4
* IRIX 5.3
* SunOS 4.1.3
* System V 4.0
* Linux
* FreeBSD
* Solaris
*
* Tested and failed on:
* Cisco router with services on ( IOS 11.0)
*
* 3. (v1.21)
* - Code commented since I intend on abandoning this for a while.
*
* 4. (v1.3)
* - Resending for ports that weren't replied for.
* (took some modifications in the internal structures. this also
* makes it possible to use non-linear port ranges
* (say 1-1024 and 6000))
*
* 5. (v1.31)
* - Flood detection - will slow up the sending rate if not replies are
* recieved for STCP_THRESHOLD consecutive sends. Saves alot of resends
* on easily-flooded networks.
*
* 6. (v1.32)
* - Multiple port ranges support.
* The format is: |[,|,...]
*
* Examples: 20-26,113
* 20-100,113-150,6000,6660-6669
*
* PLANNED: (when I have time for this)
* ------------------------------------
* (v2.x) - Multiple flag combination selections, smart algorithm to point
* out uncommon replies and cross-check them with another flag
*
*/

#define RESOLVE_QUIET

#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include "resolve.c"
#include "tcppkt03.c"

#define STCP_VERSION "1.32"
#define STCP_PORT 1234 /* Our local port. */
#define STCP_SENDS 3
#define STCP_THRESHOLD 8
#define STCP_SLOWFACTOR 10

/* GENERAL ROUTINES ------------------------------------------- */

void banner(void)
{
printf("\nscantcp\n");
printf("version %s\n",STCP_VERSION);
}
void usage(const char *progname)
{
printf("\nusage: \n");
printf("%s [sf]\n\n",progname);
printf("\t : 0: half-open scanning (type 0, SYN)\n");
printf("\t 1: stealth scanning (type 1, FIN)\n");
printf("\t 2: stealth scanning (type 2, ACK)\n");
printf("\t : source address (this host)\n");
printf("\t : target to scan\n");
printf("\t : ports/and or ranges to scan - eg: 21-30,113,6000\n");
printf("\t : microseconds to wait between TCP sends\n");
printf("\t : seconds to wait for TCP replies\n");
printf("\t[sf] : slow-factor in case sends are dectected to be too fast\n\n");
}
/* OPTION PARSING etc ---------------------------------------- */
unsigned char *dest_name;
unsigned char *spoof_name;
struct sockaddr_in destaddr;
unsigned long dest_addr;
unsigned long spoof_addr;
unsigned long usecdelay;
unsigned waitdelay;

int slowfactor = STCP_SLOWFACTOR;

struct portrec /* the port-data structure */
{
unsigned n;
int state;
unsigned char ttl;
unsigned short int window;
unsigned long int seq;
char sends;

} *ports;

char *portstr;

unsigned char scanflags;

int done;

int rawsock; /* socket descriptors */
int tcpsock;

int lastidx = 0; /* last sent index */
int maxports; /* total number of ports */

void timeout(int signum) /* timeout handler */