How To Conduct an Interview

Interviews have four stages that precede the writing of a story:? arrangements, preparation, the actual interview and the reconstruction.
ARRANGEMENTS--Spontaneous interviews, except in connection with breaking news, seldom contribute to thoroughness? Once you have decided to interview someone, call in advance to make an appointment? Identify yourself by your name and the name of your publication? If you feel the need to do so or are asked to describe what the story is about, be brief and general.? The shape of the story might change as you continue your reporting.? If you are interviewing several persons in connection with your story, interview the principal person last, because you will be better prepared based on what you learn from the earlier interviews.
PREPARATION?Do as much research as possible in advance on the person and/or topic you are working on.? Sources might include the library, public records, the internet and people you know who can provide background information.? Prepare your questions in advance in writing and bring them to the interview.? Refer to them but don't show them to the interviewee, because it creates too formal an atmosphere.? Ask other questions as they might arise, based on what the interviewee says or something new that might come to you on the spur of the moment.? Bring two pencils (or pens) and paper.? A stenographer's notebook is usually easier to handle than a large pad but use whatever is comfortable.? Bring a tape recorder if you can but be sure to get the permission to use it from the person you are interviewing.? You also should take notes, because it will help in the reconstruction phase, and, yes, tape recorders fail occasionally.
THE INTERVIEW?It is inadvisable to launch right into the interview unless you are only being given a few minutes.? Some casual conversation to start with will relax both of you.? Questions should be as short as possible.? Give the respondent time to answer.? Be a good listener.? If he or she prattles on, it is appropriate to move on as politely as you can.? You might say something such as:? "Fine, but let me ask you this?".? Try to draw out specifics:? How long, how many, when, etc.?? Absorb the atmospherics of the locale where the interview takes place, with particular attention to what might be a reflection of the interviewee's personality and interests, such as photos of children or bowling trophies or a paper-littered desk or a clean one, etc.? Note characteristics of the interviewee that might be worth mentioning in your story, such as pacing, looking out the window to think, hand gestures and the like.? Invite the person to call you if she/he thinks of anything pertinent after the interview.? It often happens, so be sure to provide your name, email address and phone number on a card or piece of paper before you leave.? If that person has a secretary, be sure to get that person's name and telephone number, too, in case there is some detail that needs followup and, again, leave information as to how you may be contacted.? If a photo is needed and is not taken during the interview, be sure to make arrangements then to have one taken at a later time.
RECONSTRUCTION?As soon as it's practical after the interview, find a quiet place to review your handwritten notes.? In your haste while taking notes, you may have written abbreviations for words that won't mean anything to you a day or two later.? Or some of your scribbling may need deciphering, and, again, it is more likely you'll be better able to understand the scribbles soon after the interview.? Underline or put stars alongside quotes that seemed most compelling. One star for a good quote, two stars for a very good one, etc.?? It will speed the process when you get to the writing stage.? One other thing to look for in your notes:? the quote you wrote down might not make a lot of sense, unless you remember what specific question it was responding to.? In short, fill in whatever gaps exist in your notes that will help you better understand them when writing.
Interviewing involves to two types of skills. The first is questioning skills. By asking the right types of questions in the right sequence, you can elicit more complete information from informants than likely without these techniques.
The other is rapport building skills. These skills help you build rapport with your informant so that they trust you and freely give you information. In fact, when you develop a sufficiently strong rapport with informants, they contact you when they have information they think you might be interested in).
The following procedure suggests how you might plan for and conduct an interview. Following this procedure should help you elicit the desired information from your informants and develop a good rapport with them.
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Before the Interview
What is your purpose? Concretely state the type of information you hope to get by the end of the interview. Suppose, for example, that you were asked to prepare information for end users of a new software application and plan to interview the chief designer of the application.
By the end of the first interview, you might want to know what the application is and the five tasks that users are most likely to perform with it. Similarly, suppose you are developing the internal policies guide for a medium-sized retailer and you plan to interview the human resources manager. By the end of the interview, you might want to know the policies that need to be addressed and how they will be administered.
What types of things do you need to ask so informants reveal the desired information? List the broad topics for 3 to 7 questions. If you have more questions than that, you probably need to schedule a second interview. Suppose once again that you are preparing information for end users of a new software application and your goal is finding out which tasks will most commonly perform with the application. Your topic areas might include:
Most common tasks
Character sketches of typical users
How users currently perform these tasks
How easily will users be able to learn these tasks
The most likely "tough spots"
Present these topics as questions. When writing questions, focus on "open" questions. Open questions require more than a single word as an answer and therefore more likely to elicit information from informants. Open questions usually begin with words like what, why, and how . Avoid closed questions, questions that only require an answer of a single word. Any question that requires a yes or no answer is an example of a closed question.
Consider the question about the most difficult tasks for users to learn. An example of a closed question is:
X Are there any tasks that users might find difficult?
The informant might respond yes, but you will have to ask another question to find out which tasks are difficult. In contrast, this open question is likely to elicit the sought-after information on the first try:
Y Which tasks do you expect users to have most difficulty with?
This list of questions is called an interview guide.
When writing questions, also consider these suggestions:
Avoid "double-barrelled" questions, that is, questions that really ask two things at once, such as "Are you a technical communicator and do you exercise regularly?"
Avoid negatives in questions; focus, instead, on the positive
Be careful using technical terminology in questions; make sure that your informant will understand the term or be prepared to provide a clear, succinct definition
Contact the informant and schedule an appointment for the interview. A first interview should take about 1 to 2 hours. Later, when you build a rapport, you can meet for a longer period of time. When scheduling the interview, tell the informant what your goal is. The informant can review any appropriate documents and make copies for you, if appropriate.
Review your interview guide.
Determine how you plan to record information--audiotape or notes--and make sure you have the appropriate equipment or materials before the interview.
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At the Interview
Be prompt. Appearing late for an interview, especially a first interview, interferes with your ability to build trust with an informant. If you are going to be late, call to let the informant know. Most informants understand that some delays cannot be avoided.
Be prepared. Walk in with all materials ready to use (other than quickly setting up the tape recorder, if you use one).
If you plan to record the interview, first ask the informant if he or she minds your doing so. Only after the informant provides permission should you turn on the tape recorder.
Begin the interview by repeating the purpose. Ask questions. Start with your first question.
Although you have an interview guide, consider straying from it if the informant is providing you useful information.
As the informant responds to your questions, make sure that you clearly and completely understand the responses. If you do not, ask your informant to clarify points that seem unclear, amplify points that seem ambiguous, and to verify points (for this purpose, you might use closed questions, such as "Did you say that...")
Actively listen to what the participant says. People provide you with information when they believe that you are listening to them. Whenever possible, use the informants own words as a means of reflecting back the informants’ responses and of encouraging further discussion. For example, suppose the informant told you that "users are really going to love this product."
You respond. "Really going to love this product?"
"Oh yes," the informant replies, and continues to explain how.
Do not exceed the time limit for the interview. Instead, ask the informant if you may continue beyond the scheduled time or schedule an additional interview.
Before closing the interview, summarize the main points with the informant to verify that you correctly understand the information provided.
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After the Interview
Write a thank-you note to acknowledge your appreciation for the interview.
Transcribe your notes and assess whether you actually whether or not you got the information you wanted. If not, identify the information that’s missing and determine whether you want to interview the informant again or seek the information from another source.
Difficulty: Average
Time Required: Minutes to hours
Here's How:
1. Track down your subject. This could be as simple as walking next door and knocking or calling the office of a city official to ask for an interview. Famous people always have P.R. reps that set up their interviews; business people will often have their secretaries set up such appointments.
2. Identify yourself. And what is it you're writing about? You don't have to reveal potential scoops here, but be straightforward enough that the source can't later say you misled him.
3. If calling ahead, set a mutually acceptable time and place for the interview. If not meeting at the person's business, public places such as coffeehouses are best. If covering spot news, politely ask if the person can spare a few moments of his time to talk with you.
4. Ask the source if they wish to be quoted. If so, ask the source to spell his or her name. (Don't assume that "Smith" isn't spelled "Smyth.") PRINT this in your reporter's notebook, even if the rest of the interview is in scribbled shorthand. Spell the source's name back to him or her to make sure you got it right.
5. When asking a question, give the source room to breathe. Often you'll get your best quotes and information by not jumping to the next question, but letting the source carry on with his train of thought and expanding upon the question.
6. Don't be afraid to slow a source down. Better to ask the source to repeat himself than get the quote wrong.
7. Pick out the best quotes as you go. This is a learned skill. As you grow accustomed to interviewing people, your mind will pick out the noteworthy quotes, the key facts, the interesting details, and these are the things that will wind up in your notes. Remember, you might only use 10 percent of what a source says, or they might be the anchor for your story. You'll never know until you talk to them.
8. Referrals yield good stuff. Sometimes a source will tell you that he can't give you all the information that you need. Ask him who can. Get that name, get that number, get the information.
9. A bit of friendliness goes a long way. I think of one time when I knocked on a door near a crime scene, and the resident was very wary of talking to the press (as many involved in crime stories are, for fear of retribution). She let me as far as inside the front door. After I complimented her sofa, I was soon sitting on it, getting much more information from her than I could even use.
10. Be available for more. Sometimes sources will think of more later, and sometimes they have to cut interviews short. Always have business cards with your contact information. And be prepared to take a call or answer an e-mail at nearly any time.
11. Always say thank you. Your time is valuable, and so is theirs. Thank them for taking the time to speak with you.
12. Fill in the blanks. You might take notes so quickly that it's good to sit in your car, or rush back to your desk, and rapidly fill in some of the shorthand so there is no question in your mind later when you sit down to write.
What You Need:
· A spiral-bound reporter's notebook and pen
· Identification and a business card with contact information
· A tape recorder, if you and the subject are comfortable with it
· A digital camera, should a good image present itself
· A cell phone, to keep on top of appointment changes








Introduction
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.
Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.
Preparation for Interview
Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.
Explain the purpose of the interview.
Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so. See getting informed consent.
Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.
Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the interview or bring along someone to take notes.
Types of Interviews
Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".
General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee./LI>
Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
Types of Topics in Questions
Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:
Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing
Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic
Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to note that you're looking for feelings
Knowledge - to get facts about a topic
Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.
Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.
Sequence of Questions
Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.
Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before warming up to more personal matters.
Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.
The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of Questions
Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when answering questions.
Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
Questions should be asked one at a time.
Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the program or the respondents' culture.
Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future questions.
Conducting Interview
Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
Ask one question at a time.
Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."
Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future questions.
Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."
Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer.
Immediately After Interview
Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?
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Interviewing Principles
Document Author: Lynch AssociatesReprinted From: Copyright, Lynch Associates, 1996 (reprinted by permission) 206-547-1269(posted 7/97)
Most employment decisions are based on interviewing the applicant. But most interviews don't provide us with sufficient information to make an informed decision. As a consequence, most hiring decisions are based on who the interviewers like best. This is akin to deciding to get married on the first date. To conduct more effective interviews, follow these principles:
Ask questions which allow the candidate to do at least 70% of the talking. For the most part, avoid questions that can be answered "yes" or "no." The best questions are ones in which the candidates recount their past experience.
Phrase your questions so that the desired or "right" answer is not apparent to the applicant.
Ask only one question about one subject at a time.
Ask the easy questions first so as to make the applicant feel comfortable.
All questions should be directly related to finding out about the applicant's ability to do the job, not about his or her personal life.
Spend the entire time writing, recording the candidate's answers and any assumptions you are making.
Interviews are generally a poor place to test the candidate's skills, other than the skill of being interviewed. Some interpersonal skills can be tested, however, through the use of role-playing with the applicant.
While you are writing, nod occasionally to let the applicant know you are listening.
If the applicant doesn't respond right away to a question, wait. Give them time, while you add to your notes.
Follow up: ask the person to tell you more, to give more details.
Ask the candidate to describe their past behavior in the kind of situations they will encounter on the job.
Alternate between easy, non-threatening questions and more difficult, pointed ones.
After you have asked the candidate all your questions, allow them time to ask you any questions they have about the job.
Close the interview by asking the candidate if there is anything they regret saying, any answer they'd like to change, or anything they'd like to add to their previous statements.
Spend at least thirty minutes reviewing your notes after the interview and identifying any key qualities that you feel you have not adequately tested. These become objectives for subsequent interviews or for assessment experiences.
Types of interviewing QuestionsSkilled interviewers use a variety of types of questions to draw the most information from the candidate. These are listed below in the approximate order in which they might be asked.Permission QuestionsPermission questions demonstrate concern for the other party. They are used at the beginning of the interview to put the other person at ease. Examples include:
Are there any questions you have about the process before we begin the interview?
Is there anything I can do to make you more comfortable before we begin? . Okay if we start with question one?
Factual Questions:Factual questions are low-risk attempts to obtain objective data about the applicant. They are intended to give you a picture of the status of the other party. These questions can be used to help make the applicant feel comfortable and are good to use at the beginning of the interview and after a particularly difficult or threatening question. Examples include:
What do you do in your present job?
How long have you worked there?
What attracted you to our company?
Tell Me About Questions:These questions are the most important in a hiring interview. They ask the candidate todescribe their past experience. Examples include:
Tell me about a recent important decision you made and how you went about it.
Walk me through the first and last half hour of your most recent normal workday.What did you do first, second, etc.?
Tell me about a recent work assignment that made you look forward to going to work.
Feeling Questions:Feeling questions are designed to obtain subjective data on the other party's feelings, values and beliefs. They are useful as follow-ups to Tell Me About or Factual Questions. Make sure that the applicant responds by describing an emotional state, not by describing what they thought. Examples include:
How did you feel about that reaction?
What do you like best (least) about your present job?
How would you feel if this were to occur?
Magic Wand Questions:Magic Wand Questions encourage the other party to speculate or dream. They are give you an idea of the creativity and aspirations of the candidate. Examples include:
If you could change anything in your present work environment, what would it be?
What would a perfect relationship with your boss be like?
If you were put in charge of a volunteer program, what would you do first?
Tell Me More Questions:These questions are used as follow-up to any of the other kinds of questions. Examplesinclude:
Can you be more specific?
What other approaches did you consider before you tried that?
Then what happened?
Checking Questions:Checking questions allow you to make sure you understand the other person's answer. They are useful at any point in the interview but most useful at the end to help you check any assumptions you have made about the applicant. Examples include:
Is this what you mean?
As I understand it, your plan of action is this. Am I right?
Are you saying that was a negative experience?
Sample Competency ModelBelow is a sample competency model for hiring an administrative assistant in a small business. This model is intended only to provide samples of the kinds of competencies listed in a competency model and is not intended for use in actually hiring such a person.
Knowledge:
Basic understanding of the business we are in.Knowledge of how to use Microsoft Word.Knowledge of how to use Microsoft Excel.Basic accounting knowledge.
Skills:
Keyboard skills.Basic book-keeping skills.Positive presentation of self.Ability to organize information systemsGood time management skillsSkill in using quantitative reports
Attitudes:
Proactive (takes initiative)ReliablePositive attitudeEnthusiasmPositive work ethicBurning desire to make the boss look good.
Credentials:
Technical school degree in business administration
Experiences:
Preparing budgetsUsing appropriate softwarePreparing business documentsSetting up a filing systemInteracting with the publicPurchasing supplies
Affiliations:
Member of appropriate professional organizations.Knowing people in our field